Unit 1: Electronic communication

 Block diagram of an electronic communication system

 Electromagnetic spectrum-band designations and applications
 Need for modulation.
 Concept of channels and base-band signals.
 Concept of Noise.
 Types of Noise.
 Signal to noise ratio.
 Noise Figure.
 Noise Temperature.
 Friss formula.
 What is Process of Communication???

 Origin of information in the mind of the person who wants to communicate

 Creation of message signal carrying the information
 Converting the message signal into electrical form using a suitable transducer
 Processing the message signal such that it will have the capability to travel for a
long distance
 Transmission of the processed message signal to the desired destination
 Reception of the processed message signal at the desired destination
 Processing the received message signal in such a way to recreate the original
non-electrical form
 Finally delivering the information from the message signal to the intended
person
 Electronic Communication
Electronic communications is the Transmission, Reception, and Processing of information
between two or more locations with the use of electronic circuits.

(i)Transmitter (ii) Communications channel or Medium (iii) Receiver and (iv) Noise

Input to the system: Analog signals (such human voice) or digital signals (binary data),
Processed in the electronic circuits for transmission, and
then decoded by the receiver.
 Six Types of Electronic Communication
 Audio: Electronic audio communication started with telephone. Today, audio traverses an array of
electronic channels that includes radio, television, mobile phones and even Internet-connected
electronic devices.
 Video: Apart from conventional TV and movies, now, webcams allow users to instantly
communicate via full-motion video chat.
 Email: It provides a channel for exchanging messages in much the same method as
traditional mail.
 Instant Messages: Unlike email, though, instant messages connect users through a central server that
instantly delivers the electronic communication. Because both the sender and the recipient must
typically be logged in to start an instant message communication, the immediate message delivery
facilitates a near real-time conversation.
 Websites: It can take many forms and serve as a wide variety of electronic communication channels.
In their most basic form, websites simply disseminate information to visitors who access and read
information on the site.
 Text Messages: Mobile phone users can use electronic communication on the go with a service known
as Short Messaging Service.
Different type of audio signal
A high-fidelity audio signal requires a range of 50 to 15000 Hz, but a bandwidth of 300 to 3300 Hz
is adequate for a telephone conversation and is termed as narrowband speech.
For wideband speech, the frequency range is from 0 to 8000 Hz.
Wideband audio, also known as wideband voice or HD voice, is high definition voice quality for
telephony audio. It extends the frequency range of audio signals transmitted over telephone lines,
resulting in higher quality speech.

When a carrier has been similarly modulated with each, a greater bandwidth will be required
for the high-fidelity (hi-fi) transrnission.
 Transmitter

 Collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that converts the original source
information (Baseband signal) - to a form suitable for transmission.
 It is a part of the system where the sender inputs or encodes the information i.e accepts
the information signal to be transmitted and converts it into a radio frequency (RF)
signal capable of being transmitted over long distances.
 Examples of transmitters may be as simple as a microphones or as complex as a
microwave radio transmitter,.

Communication Channel
 It is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent or propagated from one
place to another(transporting signals between a transmitter and a receiver).
 The channel can be as simple as copper wire( carrying a voice signal from
microphone to headset) or as complex as the optical fiber and satellite systems.
 Signals can also be propagated through radio waves or free space depending upon
the type of modulation and frequency being used.
 Receiver
 It is a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted signals from the
transmission medium and then converts those signals back to their original form which is
understandable by humans. One good example of a receiver is the television.

Noise
 Noise is any unwanted electrical signals that interferes with the information signal.
 It is a random electrical energy that enters the system via the medium. Channel attenuates
the signal that carries the message.
 However, noise can also be generated in the receiver which causes some errors in demodulation
process.
 Noise may come from different sources such as the atmosphere, particularly lightning and
thunderstorms. It may also come from the outer space where the sun and billions of stars emit
radiation which interferes with the signal.
Noise is inevitable, it is always present in a system. It can never be avoided, but can always
be minimized with the use of sophisticated techniques and electronic circuits. Amplifiers are
included both in the transmitter and receiver to compensate this problem
Classification of Communication systems
 Classification Based on Direction of Communication
Simplex System: In these systems, the information is communicated in only one direction . For
example,(i) the radio or TV broadcasting system can only transmit, they can not receive.
(ii)Information transmitted by the telemetry system of a satellite to earth which transmits information
about the physical status of the satellite such as its position or temperature .

Half duplex System: These systems are bidirectional, i.e. they can transmit as well as receive but not
simultaneously. At a time, these systems can either transmit or receive, for example, a trans-receiver
or walky talky set. The direction of communication alternates . For example: The radio
communications such as those in military, fire fighting, citizen band (CB) and amateur radio.

Full duplex System: These are truly bidirectional systems as they allow the communication to take
place in both the directions simultaneously .These systems can transmit as well as receive
simultaneously . For example: the telephone systems.
Simplex Transmission

(i) AM and FM radio broadcasting: Stations broadcast music, news, weather reports, and programs for
entertainment and information. It includes shortwave.
(ii) Digital radio: There is both satellite and terrestrial. Radio programming is transmitted in digital format
(iii)TV Broadcasting: Stations broadcast entertainment, informational, and educational programs by radio.
(iv) Digital television (DTV). Radio transmission of television programming is performed by digital
methods, both satellite and terrestrial, e.g., high- definition television (HDTV) and Internet Protocol
Television (IPTV).
(v) Cable television. Movies, sports events, and other programs are distributed to subscribers by fiber-
optic and coaxial cable.
(vi)Facsimile. Printed visual material is transmitted over telephone lines. A facsimile, or fax, machine
scans a document and converts it to electronic signals that are sent over the telephone system for
reproduction in printed form by another fax machine. Faxes can also be sent from a computer.
(vii)Wireless remote control: This category includes a device that controls any remote item by radio or
infrared. Examples are missiles, satellites, robots,
(viii) Internet of Things (IoT). The monitoring or control of remote devices, appliances, and other
items in a home, office or other facility is usually accomplished by a combination of wireless
and Internet connectivity.
Duplex Transmission:
(i) Telephones. One-on-one verbal communication is transmitted over the vast worldwide telephone
networks employing wire, fibre optics, radio, and satellites.
Cordless telephones provide short-distance wireless communication for cord-free convenience.
Cell phones provide worldwide wireless communications via handsets and base stations and the
wired telephone system. In addition to voice communications, cell phones facilitate e-mail, Internet
access, instant message service, video, and games.
Internet telephones, known as voice over the Internet protocol (VoIP) phones, use high-speed
broadband services (cable, DSL, wireless, fiber) over the Internet to provide digital voice
communications.
Satellite phones use low-earth-orbit satellites to give worldwide voice service from any remote
location on earth.
(ii) Two-way radio. Commercial, industrial, and government communication is transmitted
between vehicles, handheld units, and base stations. Examples include police, fire, taxi, forestry
service, trucking companies, aircraft, marine, military, and government.
(iii) Radar: This special form of communication makes use of reflected microwave signals for the
purpose of detecting ships, planes, and missiles and for determining their range, direction, and speed.
Most radar is used in military applications, but civilian aircraft and marine services also use it. Police
use radar in speed detection and enforcement.
(iv) Sonar. In underwater communication, audible base- band signals use water as the transmission
medium. Submarines and ships use sonar to detect the presence of enemy submarines. Passive sonar
uses audio receivers to pick up water, propeller, and other noises. Active sonar is like an underwater
radar with which reflections from a transmitted ultrasonic pulse are used to determine the direction,
range, and speed of an underwater target.
(v) Amateur radio. This is a hobby for individuals interested in radio communication. Individuals may
become licensed “hams” to build and operate two- way radio equipment for personal communication
with other hams.
(vi) Citizens radio. Citizens band (CB) radio is a special service that any individual may use for
personal communication with others. Most CB radios are used in trucks and cars for exchanging
information about traffic conditions, speed traps, and emergencies.
(vii) The Internet. Worldwide interconnections via fiber- optic networks, telecommunications
companies, cable TV companies, Internet service providers, and others provide World Wide Web
(WWW) access to millions of websites and pages and electronic mail (e-mail).
Classification on The Nature of Information Signal

They are classified into two main categories :

(i) Analog communication system

(ii) Digital communication system

 Analog communication

 The modulation systems or techniques in which one of the characteristics of the carrier is
varied in proportion with the instantaneous value of modulating signal is called as Analog
modulation system (information signal or message is analog in nature)

 If the carrier is sinusoidal, then its amplitude, frequency or phase is changed in accordance
with the modulating signal to obtain AM, FM or PM respectively . These are continuous wave
modulation systems (CW).

 If the carrier is in the form of rectangular pulse and the amplitude, width or position of the
carrier pulses is varied in accordance with the modulating signal to obtain the PAM, PWM or
PPM outputs . These are Pulse modulation systems (PM).
Advantages of Analog communication
 Transmitters and receivers are simple
 Low bandwidth requirement
 FDM (Frequency division multiplexing) can be used

Drawbacks of Analog communication

 Noise affects the signal quality; Not possible to separate noise and signal
 Repeaters can not be used between transmitter and receiver
 Coding is not possible
 It is not suitable for the transmission of secret information

Applications
 Radio broadcasting (AM and FM)
 TV broadcasting
 Telephones
 Digital Transmission and Communication

 The transmitted signal is in the form of digital pulses of constant amplitude, constant frequency
and phase.

 Pulse code modulation (PCM) and delta modulation (DM) are the examples of digital
modulation.(Digital Transmission).

 When the message signal is digital in nature, while carrier is a high frequency analog signal
and depending on variation of amplitude, frequency and phase of carrier w.r.t digital message,
we obtain ASK( Amplitude shift keying), FSK (Frequency shift keying) and PSK (Phase
shift keying) respectively.

 This is also known as Digital radio as it can be transmitted through radio waves and wireless
communication is possible,
Advantages of Digital Communication
 Due to the digital nature of the transmitted signal, the interference of additive noise does not introduce
many errors . Hence, digital communication has a better noise immunity .
 The channel coding techniques used in digital communication makes it is possible to detect and
correct the errors introduced during the data transmission.
 Repeaters can be used between transmitter and receiver to regenerate the digital signal improving the
noise immunity further .
 Advanced data processing techniques such as digital signal processing, image processing, data
compression etc can be used because of digital signal.
 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing ) technique can be used to transmit many voice channels over a
single common transmission channel .
 Digital communication is useful in military applications where only a few permitted receivers can
receive the transmitted signal .
 Digital communication is becoming simpler and cheaper as compared to the analog communication
due to the invention of high speed computers and integrated circuits (ICs) .
Drawbacks of Digital Communication
 The bit rates of digital systems are high . Therefore, they require a larger channel
bandwidth as compared to analog system .
 Digital modulation needs synchronization in case of synchronous modulation .

Applications of Digital Communications

 Long distance communication between earth and space ships.
 Satellite communication
 Military communication
 Telephone systems
 Data and computer communications
 Classification Based on the Technique of Transmission
Based on the technique used for the signal transmission, we can categorise the electronic
communication system as under :
 Baseband transmission system (Low frequency signals)
 Communication systems using modulation

Baseband Transmission: The baseband signals (original information signals; analog or

digital) are directly transmitted. Example of these type of systems are telephone networks
where the sound signal converted into the electrical signal is placed directly on the telephone lines
for transmission. Another example of baseband transmission is computer data transmission over
the coaxial cables in the computer networks. Thus, the baseband transmission is the
transmission of the original information signal as it is .
Broadband Modulation: The information signal is transmitted using the modulation process
where a high frequency signal (carrier) is used to transmit the message. Long distance
communication (wired and wireless) uses this technique.
 Limitation of Baseband Transmission

 The baseband transmission can not be used with certain mediums e.g., it can not be used for the
radio transmission where the medium is free space,
 This is because the voice signal can not travel long distance in air. It gets suppressed after a short
distance. Therefore, for the radio communication of baseband signals, a technique called
modulation is used .
 Any Information, before being transmitted, has to be converted into electronic signals
compatible with the medium. For eg. µ phone changes voice into a voltage of varying frequency
and amplitude and this baseband signal is transmitted over wires to a receiver or headphone
(Telephone System).
 For long distance transmission, free space can be used and information has to be converted into
electronic signals which radiate into space. Such signals consist of both electric and magnetic
fields whose amplitude vary at a specific rate.
 These electromagnetic signals also called as radio frequency (RF) waves.
 These waves vary sinusoidally and their frequency varies from very low to extremely high
frequency.
 This entire range of frequencies is Electromagnetic spectrum.
 The frequency spectrum is divided into segments for classifying various portions and their
applications
 Hz, Khz, MHz, GHz,THZ, PHz, EHz

As we go from downwards to upwards, the wavelengths get smaller and the

frequencies get higher. This is an inverse relationship between wave size and
frequency. (As one increases, the other decreases.) This is because the speed of ALL
EM waves is the speed of light (300,000 km/s).
 Extremely Low Frequencies: These signals are in the range of 30-300Hz. These include ac
power line frequencies(50-60 Hz) and in the low end of human hearing range.

 Voice Frequencies: These are in the range of 300-3000Hz. This is the normal range of
human speech. Although human hearing extends from 20Hz-20KHz most intelligible
sound occurs in VF range.

 Very Low Frequencies: These include 3-30KHz, higher end of human hearing range up to
about 15-20KHz. Many musical instruments also make sounds in this range as well as in
the ELF and VF ranges. Used in Government and military communications. Used by the
navy to communicate with submarines.

 Low Frequencies: In the range 30-300KHz. Aeronautical and Marine navigation.

Frequencies in this range are also used as subcarriers. ( These are the signals that carry the
baseband modulating information but which, in turn, higher frequency carrier.
 Medium Frequencies: These are in the range 300-3000KHz (3MHz) Major application is AM
broadcasting (535-1635KHz). Other various applications are marine and aeronautical
communications.

 High Frequencies: These are in the range 3-30MHz. These are also known as short waves. All kinds
of two way radio communications and some short wave radio broadcasting. Govt and Military
services for two way radio communication. Amateur radio and CB communications also in this
spectrum.

 Very High Frequencies: It covers 30-300MHz range. An extremely popular frequency range and
used by mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications. FM broadcasting (88 to 108
MHz) and T.V channels 2-13. Radio amateurs also have numerous bands in this frequency range.

 Ultrahigh Frequencies: These are in the range 300-3000MHz. It includes UHF television channels
14 through 67. Widely used for land mobile communications and cellular telephones. Military
services, radar and navigation services used in this range. Frequencies above 1GHz called
Microwaves.
 Super high Frequencies: This range is 3 to 30 GHz. It includes microwave frequencies
widely used for satellite communications and RADAR. Some specialized two way radio
communications also in this range.

 Extremely High Frequencies: These extend from 30 to 300GHz. Equipment used to

generate and receive signals in this range are extremely complex and expensive. Satellite and
some specialized radar. Signals directly above this range are referred to as mm waves.

 Infrared: EMT signals whose frequency higher than 300GHz are not referred to as radio
waves. IR range is sandwiched between highest radio frequencies and visible portion of
EMT spectrum. It occupies range 0.01mm and 700nm or 0.7to 10µm. These signals used
for special kinds of communications. Used in astronomy to detect stars and other
physical bodies. Used for guidance in missiles and also in T.V remote control units.
Optical devices (lenses and mirrors) used to process and manipulate IR signals.
 Visible Spectrum: Above IR is visible spectrum(0.4-0.8µm). Light is widely
used for various kinds of communications. Light waves can be modulated and
transmitted through glass fibres just as electrical signals can be transmitted over
wires, Their high frequency gives them the ability to handle large amount of
information. BW of baseband signal may be very wide.

 Beyond the visible region are the x-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays.
 Propogation of Radio Waves
 In the VLF, LF and MF bands the propagation of waves, also called as Ground waves follow the
curvature of the earth. The maximum transmission ranges of these waves are of the order of a few
hundred kilometres. They are used for low bandwidth transmissions such as Amplitude
Modulation (AM) radio broadcasting.

 The HF and VHF band transmissions are absorbed by the atmosphere, near the Earth's surface.
However, a portion of the radiation, called the sky wave, is radiated outward and upward to the
ionosphere in the upper The ionized particles of ionosphere reflect the sky waves back to the Earth. A
powerful sky wave may be reflected several times between the Earth and the ionosphere. Sky waves
are used by amateur ham radio operators and for military communication .

 Radio Wave Propagation: The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and
in free space may be divided in to the following three categories −
• Line of sight (LOS) propagation
• Ground wave propagation
• Sky wave propagation
 What is Modulation ??

 Modulation is the process of having a baseband voice video or digital signal

modify another high frequency signal called the carrier. The information
(message) to be sent is impressed upon the carrier.

 Carrier is usually a sine wave which is higher in frequency than the highest
intelligent signal frequency.

 Three basic parameters of the carrier signal( amplitude, frequency and

phase) are varied according to the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal and the resultant is Amplitude modulated signal(AM), Frequency
modulated signal (FM) and Phase modulated signal (PM).
 Process of Modulation
 The modulating signal is the baseband signal or information signal while the carrier is a high
frequency sinusoidal signal .
 In the modulation process, some parameter of the carrier wave (such as amplitude, frequency or
phase) is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal . This
modulated signal is then transmitted by the transmitter .
 The receiver demodulates the received modulated signal and gets the original information signal
back. Thus, demodulation is exactly opposite to modulation .
 In the process of modulation, the carrier wave actually acts as carrier which carries the
information signal from the transmitter to receiver .
 The waveform of the message signal is unpredictable. For example, the waveform of a speech
signal is random in nature and cannot be predicted. Thus the message signal is complex in nature
and may contain many frequency components. However, carrier signal is a sinusoidal signal of
a single frequency which is higher than the message signal or could be a pulsed signal.
The carrier signal is represented by the equation:
ec = Ec sin(ωct + ϕ) ---------------- (1)
In Equation (1), c is an indicator that this equation represents the carrier signal. The components of
this equation arc as follows:
ec: Instantaneous amplitude of the carrier;
Ec: Amplitude of the carrier;
ωc angular frequency of the carrier(2πfc), fc is the carrier frequency , the central frequency
ϕ: Initial phase of the carrier signal
Equation (1) has three parameters namely, amplitudes (Ec), frequency (ωc), and phase (ϕ). In
principle, these parameters have constant values for a particular sinusoidal wave.
According to the definition of Modulation, some characteristic of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.
After modulation any one of the three parameters of the carrier signal, namely, amplitude, frequency,
or phase, is varied keeping the remaining two constant resulting in AM, FM and PM.
 The baseband signal is then carried by these variations. The type of the modulation is decided by
Amplitude Modulation and Angle Modulation
 Need for Modulation
In the process of modulation, the baseband signal is translated i.e., shifted from low
frequency to high frequency . This frequency shift is proportional to the frequency of
carrier.

Advantages of Modulation

 Reduction in the height of antenna

 Avoids mixing of signals

 Increases the range of communication

 Multiplexing is possible

 Improves quality of reception

 Increase in transmitted Power

 Reduction in the height of antenna
For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of λ/4 ,where λ is the
wavelength λ = c /f; c is the velocity of light and f is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted
The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10 kHz is calculated
as follows :

This height is impractically impossible to install. However, if f=1MHz; antenna height required,

This height of antenna can be easily installed practically .

Thus, modulation reduces the height of the antenna .

 Avoids mixing of signals

If the baseband sound signals, from different transmitters or sources, are transmitted without
using the modulation, then all the signals being in the same frequency range (0- 20 kHz) get mixed
together and a receiver can not separate them from each other. Hence, if each baseband sound signal
is used to modulate a different carrier then they will occupy different slots in the frequency domain
(different channels).
For example: radio stations broadcast at different frequencies. Each radio station must be given its
own frequency band
Thus, modulation avoids mixing of signals .

 Increase the Range of Communication

The frequency of baseband signal is low, so they get heavily attenuated with long distances owing
to low energy. However, process of modulation increases frequency of the transmitted signal which
increases energy and longer distances can be travelled.
Thus, it increases the range of communication.
 Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted over the same
communication channel simultaneously .This is possible only with modulation by using separate
carrier frequencies for each signal . Hence, many TV channels can use the same frequency range,
without getting mixed with each other,
Different frequency signals can be transmitted at the same time .
 Improves Quality of Reception
With frequency modulation (FM) and the digital communication techniques such as PCM, the
effect of noise is reduced to a great extent . This improves quality of reception .
 Increase in radiated Power: The power radiated by an antenna of length l is proportional to (l/λ).
So low frequency signal indicates low power radiation, thus signal has to be translated to higher
frequency.
 Reduction in Bandwidth: According to information theory, amount of information which can be
transmitted is directly related to frequency. Greater information capacity increases with modulation.
 Concept of Channels and Baseband Signals

 Baseband or a low pass signal has a low-frequency—contained within the bandwidth frequency
close to 0 hertz up to a higher cut-off frequency. It is the original information without any
frequency up conversion.
 Communication using baseband is limited mainly to wired communication. For example in a
CCTV (camera and monitor), the video is sent directly over a coax cable.
 Baseband communication can be either analog or digital.
 Using baseband transmissions, it is possible to transmit multiple signals on a single cable by
using Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM), which divides a single channel into time slots.
 Examples are serial cables and local area networks (LANs).
 Digital baseband transmission, also known as line coding, aims at transferring a digital bit stream
over baseband channel, typically an unfiltered wire. Ethernet signals over a LAN. In fact, the word
"BASE" in "10BASE-T," "100BASE-T," and "1000BASE-T" Ethernet refers to baseband
transmission. These Ethernet protocols do not require signal modulation but limited to single
channel
Various examples of baseband signals:
 Telephones: 300–3400 Hz
 High-fidelity audio: 0–20 KHz
 Television (NTSC) video: 0–4.3 MHz
 Ethernet (10 Mbs): 0–20 MHz
 Camera video output up to 5.5MHz.
 Musical Instruments: 50HZ to 15 KHz
 Pass band Signals
 Passband transmission is the transmission after shifting the baseband frequencies to some higher
frequency range (called pass band) using modulation.

 Passband communication is used to send signals over air as well as over wires in order to multiplex
many signals together. Hence, sending phone calls over a cable connecting exchanges in different
cities or over a satellite link requires that the baseband (0-4KHz) signal be shifted to somewhere in the
MHz or GHz to set together alongside other shifted baseband signals (other calls).

 Apart from being used in wireless communication , it is also used in band pass filtered channels such as
POTS lines. It also allows for Frequency-division multiplexing.

 FDM allows broadband media to accommodate traffic going in different directions on a single
media at the same time.
Baseband channel or low pass channel (or system, or network) is a communication channel that can
transfer frequencies that are very near zero. This transmission allows only one signal at a time. Most
communications between computers, including the majority of local-area networks, use baseband
communications

Broadband Channel is used to describe a high-speed data transmission in which a single cable can
carry a large amount of data at once. The most common types of Internet broadband connections are
cable modems (which use the same connection as cable TV) and DSL modems (which use your existing
phone line). Because of its multiple channel capacity, broadband has started to replace baseband, the
single-channel technology originally used in most computer networks.
 Concept of Channels
Communicating data from one location to another requires some form of pathway or medium.
These pathways, called communication channels, use two types of media:

Guided (or bounded)—Electromagnetic waves are guided along a solid medium such as a
transmission line i.e. along a physical path;
Examples: phone lines, twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and optical fibers.

Wireless (or unguided)—Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.

They allow the transmission of data without the use of physical means to define the path it
takes, provide a means for transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them; examples
are propagation through air, vacuum and seawater.
Examples : Microwave, radio or infrared. (BROADCAST) In broadcast connection,
many nodes can receive information transmitted by one node.
 Guided Media:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP)
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Coaxial Cable
 Optical Fiber
 Hub
Unguided Media:
 Radio Transmission
 Microwave

hoosing the transmission media, what are the

to be considered?

mission Rate
ces
nd Ease of Installation
 Two-wire Open Lines. The limitations of this transmission media are their poor noise characteristics,
failure to provide connectivity over long distances, low bit rate. This type of transmission media is
often used in telephone networks.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) : UTP is the copper media, inherited from telephony, which is
being used for increasingly higher data rates, and is rapidly becoming the de facto standard for
horizontal wiring, the connection between, and including, the outlet and the termination in the
communication closet.

 A Twisted Pair is a pair of copper wires, with diameters of 0.4-0.8 mm, twisted together and
wrapped with a plastic coating. The twisting increases the electrical noise immunity, and reduces the
bit error rate (BER) of the data transmission. A UTP cable contains from 2 to 4200 twisted pairs.
 UTP is a very flexible, low cost media, and can be used for either voice or data communications. Its
greatest disadvantage is the limited bandwidth, which restricts long distance transmission with low
error rates.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) : STP is heavier and more difficult to manufacture, but it can greatly
improve the signaling rate in a given transmission scheme Twisting provides cancellation of
magnetically induced fields and currents on a pair of conductors.
 Two transmitters cannot share the
same frequency band because of
mutual interference and therefore
band usage is regulated.
 International use of the radio
spectrum is regulated by the
International Telecommunication
Union (ITU).
 Domestic use of the radio
spectrum is regulated by national
agencies such as Wireless
Planning and Coordination
(WPC) in India.
 WPC assigns each transmission
source a band of operation, a
transmitter radiation pattern,
and a maximum transmitter
power.
Why radio waves for communication???
 They are easy to generate
 They have same velocity in vacuum
 They may traverse long distances
 They are Omni-directional
 They can penetrate building easily so they find extensive use in communication both indoor and
outdoor
 They are frequency dependent.
At low frequency they can pass through obstacles well but the power falls off sharply with distance
from the source, as power is inversely proportional to cube of the distance from the source.
At HF they travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles.
Problems associated with radio frequency transmission.
 Path Loss:
 Adjacent channel interference
 Multipath: A receiver at any point can get two types of signal from the transmitter. One is the direct
signal and the other is the reflected signal
 µ Wave Transmission
 Microwave is a line-of-sight wireless communication technology that uses high frequency beams of
radio waves to provide high speed wireless connections that can send and receive voice, video, and
data information.
 Widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength allows
conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the
receiving antenna.
 Another advantage is that the high frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large
information-carrying capacity; the microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of
the radio spectrum below it.
 Used in point-to-point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite
communications, and in deep space radio communications.
 Other parts of the microwave radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor
systems, and radio.
Different ways of propagation of EMT waves
(i) Ground Wave or Surface Wave prpogation:
 Used for a low-frequency range transmission, mostly less than 1 MHz. This type of propagation
employs the use of large antennas order of which is equivalent to the wavelength of the waves and
uses the ground or Troposphere for its propagation.
 Signals over large distances are not sent using this method. It causes severe attenuation which
increases with increased frequency of the waves.

Another type of surface wave is produced by very large

wavelength (low frequency) ELF, VLF and LF radio
transmissions.
These waves are so large that they fill up the entire region
between the ground and the ionosphere. These two surfaces act
as waveguides that contain and direct the radiation. If the
transmitter is powerful enough, these type of surface waves can
travel great distances around the earth.
(ii) Sky Wave Propogation
 Used for the propagation of EM waves with a frequency range of 3 – 30 MHz.
 Make use of the ionosphere (presence of charged ions in the region of about 60 to 300 km from the
earth surface). These ions provide a reflecting medium to the radio or communication waves
within a particular frequency range.
 This property of the ionosphere used for long-distance transmission of the waves without much
attenuation and loss of signal strength.
 Another important point is the consideration of the angle of the emission of these waves from the
ground. The transmitter emits the EM Waves at a critical angle to ensure total reflection to the
ground just like the total internal reflection of optic waves otherwise the waves may escape into
space.

Skip Distance is the distance between the 2 points

between which the wave transmission happens.
(iii) Space Wave Propagation:
 Used for a line of Sight communication also known as LOS.
 Space satellite communication and very high-frequency waves use this propagation method.
 It basically involves sending a signal in a straight line from the transmitter to the receiver.
 We must ensure that for very large distances, the height of the tower used for transmission is high
enough to prevent waves from touching the earth curvature thus preventing attenuation and loss of
signal strength.
 Space wave is the only form of transmission in outer space, but it also occurs in the
atmosphere. VHF, UHF and SHF radio waves use the space mode. When space waves are
used by satellites to transmit information to the earth's surface they are sometimes called
satellite waves
 Ground wave propagation (from the lower atmosphere) is possible only up to about
2 MHz.
 Long distance ionosphere propagation is possible for frequencies in the range
2 to 30 MHz.
 Beyond 30 MHz, the propagation is line of sight.
 Preferred frequencies for satellite communication are around 3 to 6 GHz.

By choosing an appropriate carrier frequency and modulation technique, it is possible for us to

translate the baseband message spectrum into a suitable slot in the passband of the channel intended.
Transmission can either be:
 Line Communication
 Radio Communication

In Line communication the media of transmission is a pair of conductors called transmission

line. In this technique, signals are directly transmitted through the transmission lines. The
installation and maintenance of a transmission line is not only costly and complex, but also
overcrowds the open space.

Radio Communication: In radio communication transmission media is open space or free space.
In this technique signals are transmitted by using antenna through the free space in the form of EM
waves.
 Concept of Noise

 Noise is an unwanted disturbance in an electrical signal, error or undesired random

disturbance of a useful information signal. It enters the communications system via the
communicating medium and interferes with the transmitted message. However, some noise
is also produced in the receiver.
 Noise can be divided as: Correlated Noise: Present only when signal is present
Uncorrelated Noise: Present at all times irrespective of signal.
Classification of Uncorelated Noise:
Noise may be put into following two categories:

(i) External noises: Noise whose sources are external. (Generated outside the device or circuit) It
may be further classified into the following three types depending upon their source:
 Atmospheric noises
 Extraterrestrial noises
 Man-made noises or industrial noises

(ii) Internal Noise: Noises which gets generated within the receiver or communication system. It
can be further classified into the following four categories:
 Thermal noise or white noise or Johnson noise
 Shot noise.
 Transit time noise
 Miscellaneous internal noise.
 External Noise
Atmospheric Noise
 Atmospheric noise or static Noise : caused by lighting discharges in thunderstorms and other natural
electrical disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. These electrical impulses are random in nature. Hence
the energy is spread over the complete frequency spectrum used for radio communication. At a given
receiving point, the receiving antenna picks up not only the signal but also these static signal, Sputtering
and crackling of sound from speaker when no signal is there
However, magnitude of this noise inversely proportional to frequency, so relatively insignificant
above 30MHz.

Extra Terrestrial Noise

 Electrical signals originating from deep space (outside earths atmosphere). Originates from Milky way,
other galaxies and Sun. Accordingly, Solar noise( Sun’s heat) and Cosmic Noise (Black Body Noise).
Since source very far off, low intensity

 Man Made Noise :Sources are spark producing mechanisms as commutators in electric motors,
automobile ignition, ac power generating equipment's etc. intense in thickly populated and industrial area
 Internal Noise

Thermal Noise: The thermal agitation of the charge carriers (electrons) in a conductor in equilibrium
irrespective of applied voltage, gives rise to noise voltage, called thermal noise. It is also called Brownian,
White or Johnson noise (electrons carry a unit positive charge and mean square velocity proportional to
temperature. Consequently each flight of electrons between collisions with molecules constitute short pulse of
current developing small voltage).
Average Voltage is 0 as movement is random in all directions but has an ac component,
The analysis of thermal noise is based on the Kinetic theory. we can relate the noise power generated by a
resistor to be proportional to its absolute temperature and also proportional to the bandwidth over which it is
measured.

Pn ∝ T B
Pn = KTB ------ (1) ;where Pn = Maximum noise power output of a resistor in Watts
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x10-23 joules / Kelvin.
T = Absolute temperature and
B = Bandwidth over which noise is measured.
Here the resistor is a noise generator, All formula referring to random noise are r.m.s value.

From equation (1), an equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in below figure. Assuming RL is
noiseless and receives maximum noise power generated by R, so for maximum power transfer, RL=R

 
Pn= = = =

 E 2= 4RPn= 4RkTB
n
En=
B is also written as δf,
En or Vn is the noise voltage
From equation (2), we see that the square of the rms noise voltage is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the resistor, the value of the resistor, and the bandwidth over which it is measured.

En or Vn is quite independent of the Frequency.

 Questions

Q1. One operational amplifier with a frequency range of (18-20) MHz has input resistance 10 kΩ.
Calculate noise voltage at the input if the amplifier operates at ambient temperature of 270C.
Soln: Vn= 4KTBR= 4 x (1.38 x 10-23)x (273+ 27) x (2 x 106)x 104
BW = fh – fl = (20-18) MHz= 2 MHz
Vn= 18 µvolt
Noise Power in dBm is a logarithmic function and equal to:
N(dBm)= 10 log KTB
0.001
Which means Power is expressed in mW.

Q. Convert absolute power levels to dBm: 0,002W, 0,0001W, 10mW and 0.001W
Ans: 3dBm; -10dBm; 10dBm; 0dBm

Power levels above 1mW yields positive dBm and below this –dBm.
At 1mW it is equal to 0.
(ii)  Shot Noise


Produced by the random arrival of 'electrons or holes at the output element of an electronic
device, at the plate in a tube, or at the collector or drain in a transistor(BJT/FET).
It is also produced by the random movement of electrons also be holes across a PN junction.
It is randomly varying and superimposed on to any signal present.
Also called Transistor noise and is additive to thermal noise.
When amplified this noise sounded similar to metal pellets on tin roof.
Seen in all active devices.
Difficult to find so approximate and simplified values used except for diode.
For a diode, shot noise :

In= ; 𝛥𝑓can also written as B

In : rms shot noise current; e: charge of electron ; idc average dc current; Δf: Bandwidth

Its spectrum is flat

(iii)  Transit Time Noise


Transit time is the duration of time it takes for a current carrier such as a hole or
electron to move from the input to the output. At low frequencies, this time is negligible.
But when the frequency of operation is high and the signal being processed is the
magnitude as the transit time, then problem can occur.
The transit time also known as high frequency noise. Determined by carrier mobility,
bias voltage and transistor construction.

(iv) Flicker Noise or Low frequency noise or Noise

Flicker noise or modulation noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low audio
frequencies. It is proportional to the emitter current and junction temperature. However,
this noise is inversely proportional to the frequency. Hence it may be neglected at
frequencies above about 500 Hz and it, Therefore, possess no serious problem.
.
(v)  Partition Noise


It occurs whenever current has to divide between two or more paths, and results from the
random fluctuations in the division. Therefore, a diode would be less noisy than a
transistor (all other factors being equal). It is for this reason that the inputs of microwave
receivers are often taken directly to diode mixers.
Spectrum of Partition Noise is flat.
(vi) Avalanche Noise: In reverse bias of a diode, at avalanche region i.e. when holes and
electrons in the diode depletion region gain sufficient energy from the revers bias field to ionize
atoms by collisions. Ionizing means additional holes and electrons, since it occurs at random,
large noise spikes are present in average current
(vii) Burst Noise or Popcorn Noise: Some semiconductors also produce burst or popcorn noise
with a spectral density which is proportional to
 Noise Evaluation

The probability of amplitude of noise at any frequency or in any band of frequencies (e.g. 1
Hz, 10Hz… 100 KHz .etc) is a Gaussian distribution.
 Correlated Noise

Produced by non-linear amplification and includes harmonic and Intermodulation distortion ,

which are both forms of non-linear distortion.
 Harmonic Distortion: When unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced through non linear
amplification (mixing).
 Intermodulation Distortion: Generation of unwanted sum and difference of frequencies when
two or more signals are amplified in non-linear device, such as large signal amplifiers.
 Addition of noise due to several sources
  
Let us assume there are two sources of thermal agitation noise generators in series:
Vn1= and Vn2=2
The sum of two such rms voltages in series is given by the square root of the sum of their squares, so we
have:
Vn,rms= =) =
Where Rtot= R1+R2+R3+---------

Q. Calculate the noise voltage at the i/p of TV RF amplifier, using a device that has 200Ω equivalent
noise resistance and a 300Ω input resistor. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is 6MHz, and the temp. is
17oC
Soln: Vn,rms =
= 6.93µV
 Addition of Noise due to several Amplifiers
A1 A2

R1
R2 R3

Vn1 Vn2 Vn3

 No. of amplifiers in cascade, each having a resistance at its I/P and O/P.
 I stage is amplifier while the second is a mixer.
Aim is to find combined effect on receiver noise.
One finds equivalent I/P noise voltage or an equivalent resistance for the whole receiver.
[A resistance that will produce same random noise at o/p of receiver as does the actual receiver, so
one can replace actual receiver amplifier by an ideal noiseless one with an equivalent noise
resistance.]
Considering two stage amplifier: A1 and A2 gains of I and II stage respectively
I stage has total I/P resistance R1 and second stage has R2 as I/P resistance while R3 is O/P resistance
  
The r.m.s noise voltage at O/P due to R3 is :
Vn3 =
The same noise voltage would be present at the O/P, if there were no R3, instead R3´ was present at I/P of
2nd stage such that
V´n3 = = = = (R´3 = )
When noise resistance is transferred from O/P stage to I/P, it must be divided by square of
voltage gain of stage. Now noise resistance actually at I/P of second stage is:
R´eq =R2+ R3´ = R2+
Similarly when R2´ be placed at I/P of I stage to replace R´eq
R´2= = +
Equivalent noise resistance of whole cascaded amplifier:
Req=R1+R´2= R1++
 Amplifier Noise and Equivalent I/P Noise Generator

For any amplifier: Noise can be divided into:

 Noise it receives at its input and Noise it generates itself.
 Noise is generated in all stages in amplifiers and radio receivers but it is the first stages,
operating at the lowest signal levels, which are of main concern, particularly where low signals
from aerials, microphones, etc, are to be amplified.

Source Resistance (Rs) generates noise. Equivalent Noise Voltage and Noise Current at Amplifier Input.
Noise is often resolved into two components at the amplifier input,
an equivalent noise voltage generator (Vn)(Thermal noise) and
an equivalent noise current generator (In) (shot noise)
The first component (Vn) is independent of the value of source resistance (Rs). The second component
(In) develops a noise voltage across Rs equal to InRs, that is, the noise voltage it develops is directly
proportional to the value of R .
   V2ns= 4RskTBn
V2na= 4RakTBn
I2na = 2qeIeqBn

Vn=2
Here we have neglected noise generated by load resistance as it is very small as compared to other
sources.
It is assumed that all the noise sources are un corelated
Comparison of BJT and FET: Ra smaller and Ieq larger for BJT as compared to FET, so
for:
 I/P signal sources with low resistance, where noise voltage 𝑰𝒏𝒂𝑹𝒔 is small enough to be
neglected, BJT produces lower noise because of smaller value of Ra.
 If Rs is large, 𝑰𝒏𝒂𝑹𝒔 is significant, FET will produce lower noise as compared to BJT because of
low value of Ieq
 Intermediate value of Rs where thermal noise generated by Rs itself dominates and type of
transistor may have little bearing on overall performance
  

Q: First stage of a two stage amplifier has a voltage gain of 10, 600Ω I/P resistor, 1600Ω equivalent
noise resistance and 27kΩ o/p resistance. For 2nd stage the values are 25, 81kΩ, 10kΩ and 1MΩ
respectively. Calculate equivalent i/p noise resistance of this two stage amplifier.
Soln:
R1= 600+1600= 2200Ω
R2= 27 II 81 in series with 10kΩ = +10 = 30.2kΩ
R= 1MΩ
Req= R1+ +
= 2200 + +
= 2518 Ω
  
Q: The equivalent noise resistance for amplifier is 300Ω and shot noise current is 5µA, Amplifier is fed
from 150 Ω, 10µV rms sinusoidal signal source. Calculate individual noise voltage at Input and
I/P signal to noise ratio in decibels, given noise BW=10MHZ.
Soln: Ina= √  𝟐 𝒒𝒆𝑰𝒆𝒒𝑩𝒏
{ kT=4x10-21J, q=1.6x10-19C}
= 4 nA
Ina Rs = 0.6 µV
Noise Voltage generated by Ra: V2na= 4RakTBn
Vna = 6.93µV
Vns2= 4RskTBn
Vns= 4.9µV
Total noise voltage= 8.51µV
S/N in dB=20 log = 20 log () =1.4 dB
How to determine noise level in communication system?
 Noise effect can be determined by measuring:-

Signal to Noise Ratio, SNR for Analog system.

Probability of error or bit error rate, BER for Digital system

 A signal-to-noise ratio compares a level of signal power versus a level of noise power and is most
often expressed as a measurement of decibels (dB).

 To determine the quality of received signal at the receiver or an antenna, SNR is used.

 It is used for comparison of two kinds of equipment's in evaluating their performance.

 SNR at any point more important to find than the absolute value of noise .
  
 SNR= Ps/Pn = Vs2/Vn2 assuming Resistance R across which noise and input voltage is measured is same.

 SNR is required to be as high as possible. A system with SNR of 100 dB is considerably better than
one that is 70 dB (or less). () dB= 10 log10 ( )

 (𝑺/𝑵)dB= (S)dbm- (N)dbm ; for S and N measured in mW.

 If Vs = Vn, then S/N = 0. In this situation, the signal borders on unreadable, because the noise level
severely competes with it.

 SNR (o/p)is always less than SNR(i/p), due to the the existence of noise in the receiver itself.

 Another parameters that can be used is Noise Factor, F and Noise Temperature Te
 Noise Figure

  Forcomparison of receivers or amplifiers working at different impedance levels, the use of the
equivalent noise resistance is misleading. For example, it is hard to evaluate whether a receiver
with an input impedance of 5O Ω and Req = 90 Ω better, in terms of noise, than another receiver
whose input impedance of 30O Ω and Req = 400 Ω .
 So another important parameter is defined known as Noise Factor or Noise Figure.
 It is defined as the ratio of signal to noise ratio supplied to I/P terminals of a receiver or
amplifier to signal to noise power supplied to the O/P terminals or load resistor
 F=; O/P signal to noise will be less than I/P Signal to noise, so practically F>1
 Ideally F=1 for an ideal receiver, which introduces no noise of its own.
 Noise Figure may be expressed as an actual ratio (Noise Factor) or in decibels (noise Figure)
 Thus maximum value of Noise Factor is 1 while
 Noise Figure is: log F=log1=0
 Calculation of Noise Factor

  Consider a signal source at room temperature To=290K, providing an input to an amplifier.
 Available noise power from such a source: Pni=kToBn
 Let the available signal power from the source be Psi
 Available S/N ratio: ( )in=
 If the power gain is denoted by G, Pso= GPsi and if amplifier was entirely noiseless, available o/P
noise power: Pno= GkToBn . However, all real amplifiers contribute noise
 F=
 F = =
 Pno= FGkToBn ;
 Thus F can be interpreted as the factor by which an amplifier increases the O/P noise, because if
the amplifier was noiseless noise power will be GkToBn
  
Amplifier I/P Noise in terms of F


Total available Input noise is:

Pni= ; where G is the gain of the amplifier
Pni = FkT0B
The source contributed an available power of kT0B and hence the amplifier must contribute an amount
Pna
Pna= FkT0B-kT0B
=(F-1) kT0B

(F-1)kToBn Noiseless
kToBn Amplifier Pno= FGkToBn
Gain, G
Noise Factor,F
 Noise Factor of Amplifiers in cascade

Amplifier 1 Amplifier 2
Gain, G1 (F2-1)kToBn Gain, G2 Pno=FG1G2kToBn
Noise Factor,F1 F1G1kToBn Noise Factor,F2

Considering two amplifiers in cascade.

Available noise power at the o/p of amplifier 1 is Pno1= F1G1kToBn Which is given as i/p to amplifier 2.
Amplifier2 has noise: (F2-1)kToBn of its own at its input and hence total available noise power at the i/p
of amplifier 2 is:
Pno2=G2Pni2
= G2(F1G1kToBn+(F2-1)kToBn)
  

Overall available power gain G=G1G2 and let the overall noise Factor be F
Pno=FGkToBn
F=F1+

Extending for additional amplifiers: F=F1++

This is known as Friss’s Formula.
It shows the importance of having a high gain, low noise amplifier as the first stage of a
cascaded system, By making G1 large, noise contribution of second stage can be made negligible
and F1 must also be small so that boise contribution of first amplifier is low
Q: A mixer stage has a noise figure of 20dB and this is preceded by an amplifier that has a noise
figure of 9dB and an available power gain of 15 dB. Calculate the overall noise figure referred
as input.
Ans: 11.07 or 10.44dB Q1:
 Noise Temperature
The  concept of noise temperature is given as:


Pn=kTaBn ; where Ta is the associated temperature with available noise power

When the concept is applied to an amplifier, it relates to the equivalent noise of the amplifier referred to
the input. If amplifier noise is referred to the i/p by Pna, equivalent noise temperature of the amplifier as :
Te=
Also we know, Pna=(F-1)kToBn
So Te =(F-1)To------------------------------------------------
This shows proportionality between Te and F
In practise, noise temperature is the better measure for low noise systems like low noise amplifiers
used in satellite receiving systems, while Noise figure is a better system for main receiving system.
Te =Te1+ + +----- Friss Formula in terms of noise Temperature
 Questions
Q. Explain with the block diagram an electronic communication system.
Q. What are the frequencies lying in VHF and UHF range and their applications?
Q. What are the different types of medium used as communication channel for
transmission of signals?
Q. State three important reasons why modulation is necessary for transmitting
message signals. Name the internal noise, which becomes of great importance at
(i) High frequencies (ii) low frequencies?
Q. If the value of a resistor creating thermal noise is doubled, what will happen
to noise power generated?
Q. What are the various types of external noise?
Q. Discuss the various types of noise possible in the receiver of an amplifier.
Q Define signal to noise ratio and noise figure of a receiver. What is the noise factor and noise figure for an
ideal receiver?
Q. When is the Noise Figure more suitable than the equivalent noise resistance for evaluating the system?
Q. Why is an R. F amplifier used before the mixer stage of the receiver?
Q. Derive an expression for the overall noise factor of a system comprising of three amplifiers in a cascade.
Also rewrite the expressions in terms of an overall noise temperature.
Q. The RF amplifier of a receiver has an input resistance of 1000, and equivalent shot-noise resistance of
2000Ω, a gain of 25, and a load resistance of 125KΩ. Given that the bandwidth is 1.0 MHz and the temperature
is 20oC, calculate the equivalent noise voltage at the input to this amplifier. If this receiver is connected to an
antenna with an impedance of 75Ω, calculate the noise figure?
Q. Calculate the noise voltage at the input of a Television RF amplifier, using a device that has a 200Ω
equivalent noise resistance and a 300Ω input resistor. The bandwidth of the amplifier is 6MHz and the
temperature is 17oC.
Q. A receiver has a noise figure of 12dB, and it is fed by low noise amplifier that has a gain of 50 dB and a
noise temperature of 90K. Calculate the noise temperature of the receiver and the overall noise temperature
of the receiving systems.
Q. A mixer stage has a noise figure of 25dB and this is preceded by an amplifier with a noise figure of 12 dB
and an available power gain of 18dB. Calculate the noise figure of the system.
Q. For three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figures of 3dB and power gains of 10dB, determine
the total noise figure