TBT421

TBT421 –– ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING
FLUID
FLUID MECHANICS
MECHANICS
 TEACHING TEAM
CIK AZREENA ARIFFIN
CIK NURULHUDA BASHIROM
DR. DEWI SURIYANI CHE HALIM
DR.MD FAZLUL BARI

12/7/2010 UniMAP 2010

TEACHING ACTIVITIES
Lectures:
•40 hours within 4 weeks (6th Dec’10 – 31st
Dec’10)
•Study week (3rd Jan’11 – 9th Jan’11)
•Final exam (10th Jan’11 – 14th Jan’11)
Quiz, Tutorial, and Assignments

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 ASSESSMENT
Coursework: 30%
•Quiz & Assignments: 10%
•Written Test 1: 10%
•Written Test 2: 10%
Final Exam: 70%

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TEXT BOOK AND REFERENCES
References:
1. Alexandrou, A. (2001)
“Principles of Fluid Mechanics”
Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
2. Wan Hassan, M. N. (1994)
“Kajidaya Bendalir” Penerbit
UTM, Johor Bahru.

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 Chapters outline:
Chapter 1: Basic Concept of Fluid – Cik Nurulhuda

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics – Cik Azreena

Chapter 3: Fluid Dynamics – Cik Azreena

Chapter 4: Fluid Kinematics – Dr. Fazlul Bari

Chapter 8: Viscous Flow in Pipes – Dr. Dewi

Chapter 11: Turbomachines – Cik Nurulhuda

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 Chapter
Chapter 1:
1:
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
 Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
• A fluid is defined as a substance that
deformed continuously when acted on by a
shearing stress of any magnitude.

• Fluid can be liquid or gases.

• A shearing stress (force per unit area @

F/A) is created whenever a tangential force
acts on a surface.

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 Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
• Common solids (steel/metals) acted on by a
shearing stress, they will initially deform (very
small deformation) but they will not continuously
deform (flow).

• Common liquids (water, oil) will flow when acted by

shearing stress.

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 Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
• Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in
motion (dynamics) or at rest (static)

• Widely used both in everyday activities and in the

design of modern engineering systems, e.g. piping
systems, air-conditioning system, automobile,
rockets, jet engines, turbines, etc.

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 Dimensions, Dimensional
Homogeneity, and Units
The SI System of units
• The 6 primary units of the SI system are shown in the table
below:

• Secondary units: rise from combinations of these primary units:

area=L2, velocity =LT-1, density= ML-3 etc.

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 Dimensions, Dimensional
Homogeneity, and Units
• Example:

Quantity SI Unit Dimension

Area m2 L2
Velocity m/s ms-1 LT-1
Density Kg/m3 Kgm-3 ML-3

• The dimension can be expressed in MLT system or FLT

system, where F is the basic dimension of force.
• Since F = ma, thus F = MLT-2 or M = FL-1T2.

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 Systems of Units
British Gravitational International System
(BG) System (SI)
length Foot (ft) Meter (m)
time Second (s) Second (s)
force Pound (lb) Newton (N)
temperature Degree Fahrenheit Kelvin (K)
(°F) / K = °C + 273
Degree Rankine (°R)
(for absolute temp.)
mass slug Kilogram (kg)

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 Properties of Fluids
Density, (rho) 
Defined as its mass per unit volume.

Density is highly variable in gas, nearly constant for liquid.

 cos gas is compressible and liquid is incompressible.

Specific Volume

Volume per unit mass and is therefore reciprocal of the density.

1



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Specific Weight , 
  g
Directly related to density
Weight per unit volume
Unit N/m3
Standard gravity, g = 32.2 ft/s2 = 9.81 m/s2

Specific gravity (SG)

Ratio of a fluid density to a standard reference fluid,

usually water at 4 0C for liquids, and air for gases

 ρH2O@4°C = 1.94 slugs/ft3 or

SG 
H 2O @ 4C 1000 kg/m3

12/7/2010 UniMAP 2010

Ideal Gas Law

Gases is highly compressible (changes in density directly with P

and T).
Pressure in a fluid at rest is defined as the normal force per unit
area exerted on a plane surface.

p  RT
P is absolute pressure (it is measured relative to absolute zero
pressure), ρ the density and R is the gas constant.

Pgage – pressure that is measured relative to the local atmospheric

pressure, where the standard Patmospheric is 14.7 psi or 101 kPa.

Thus,
Pabsolute = Pgage + Patmospheric
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Force, Pressure and Stress

Consider a force F acting on an area A. The force

can be decomposed into a normal component, Fn and
a tangential component Ft .
Force divided by the area (F/A) – stress (σ)

Normal component - Normal stress (Pressure), P

Tangential component - shear stress, 
F Fn

A A Ft

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 Viscosity
• quantify the fluid’s internal resistance to flow
• is a measure of internal stickiness of a fluid
• due to cohesive forces between molecules in liquids and by molecular
collisions in gas.
• highly dependent on temperature.
- consider a fluid element sheared in one plane by a single shear stress
y u(y) Velocity
profile
du
dy
Non slip wall

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Absolute viscosity/dynamic viscosity/viscosity ()

du  = shear stress ( N/m2 )

   = viscosity ( N.s/m2 )
dy du/dy = velocity gradient
(strain rate)

Kinematic viscosity (ν)




Denoted with the Greek symbol ν (nu).
Dimensions: L2/T
BG units are ft2/s and SI units are m2/s.

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* Non-slip condition - condition where viscosity causes fluid to
adhere to the surface

• a fluid that shows a linear relationship between the applied shear

and the resulting rate of deformation (strain rate) is said to be a
Newtonian fluid (eg: air, water). Conversely, a fluid that shows
a non-linear relationship is said to be a non-Newtonian fluid .
( eg: blood, slurries, milk )
A fluid that has no viscosity is said to be an ideal fluid.

• Non-Newtonian fluid can be further classified by their behaviour

with shear strain rate into a number of different categories:
- dilatant ( shear thickening )
- pseudoplastic ( shear thinning )
- plastic
- ideal or Bingham plastic

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  Non-Newtonian
fluid (dilatant)

Ideal Newtonian
plastic fluid
Shearing
stress
Non-Newtonian
fluid (pseudoplastic)

Rate of shearing strain du/dy

Figure 1: Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids

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Compressibility
• All fluid compress if the pressure increase, result in a decrease
in volume but with an increase in density.
• For most purpose a liquid can be considered as
incompressible, but if sudden or great changes in pressure
happened, the compressibility become important
• expressed by bulk modulus of elasticity, Ev
( coefficient of compressibility )
dp
Ev 
d

• define as the ratio of the changes in pressure (p) to relative density
( /) while temperature remain constant.
• Unit - same as pressure (psi) or N/m2.
• gases with small density changes under 3% may be treated as
incompressible

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Speed of Sounds @ Acoustic velocity, c
•Is the consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that disturbances
introduced at some point in the fluid propagate at a finite velocity.
•The velocity of disturbances ‘propagation is called the acoustic velocity or
the speed of sound, c.

dp
c
d
For gases undergoing an isentropic process (when there is negligible heat
transfer), Ev = kp, so that:
kp
c

and making use of the ideal gas law, it follows that

c  kRT
The c in water is much higher than in air. If a fluid were truly
incompressible, the speed of sound would be infinite.

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Mach number, Ma = V
c
Mach no. is an important parameter in the study of the flow
of gases at high speeds.

Where V is speed of the aircraft, and c is the speed of sound.

Note: if Ma < 1.0, subsonic speeds

If Ma > 1.0, supersonic speeds

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Vapor Pressure, pv
is due to molecular activity  evaporation.
If the container is closed with a small air space left above the surface,
and this space evacuated to form a vacuum, a pressure will develop in the
spaces as a result of the vapor that is formed by the escaping molecules.
When an equilibrium condition is reached so that the number of molecules
leaving the surface is equal to the number entering, the vapor is said to
be saturated and the pressure the vapor exerts on the liquid surface is
termed vapor pressure, pv.
Vapor bubbles formed during boiling when the absolute pressure reaches
the vapor pressure.
The formation of vapor bubbles have to be avoided as it will causes a
structural damage

12/7/2010 UniMAP 2010

 Surface Tension (σ)
•Quantify the intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length along any line in the
surface.
•Property of the liquid and depends on temperature as well as the other fluid it is in
contact with at the interface
•Dimensions: N/m
•Common Phenomena: Rise/fall of a liquid in a capillary tube

•If a small open tube is inserted into

water, the water level in the tube
will rise above the water level
outside the tube (a).
•In this situation, it is called liquid-
gas-solid interface.
•There is an attraction (adhesion)
between the wall of the tubes and
liquid molecule, which is strong
enough to overcome the mutual
Figure 1.4(a): Rise of column for a liquid that wets the tube. attraction (cohesion) of the
molecules and pull them up to the
wall.
•Hence, the liquid is said to wet the
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 h, is governed by the value of surface tension, σ,
the tube radius, R, the specific weight of the
liquid, γ, and the angle of contact, θ, between the
fluid and tube.
From Figure 1.4(b), the vertical force due o the
surface tension is equal 2πRσ cos θ and the weight
is γπR2h and these two forces must balance for
equilibrium. Thus,

R 2 h  2R cos 

Figure 1.4: (b) Free-body So that the height is given by the relationship
diagram for calculating column
height.
2 cos 
h
R

The angle of contact is a function of both the liquid

and surface. For water in contact clean glass θ≈ 00.
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If adhesion of molecules to the solid surface is weak compared to
the cohesion between molecules, the liquid will not wet the surface
and the level in a tube placed in nonwetting liquid will actually be
depressed.
e.g. mercury. For nonwetting liquids the angle of contact is greater
than 900 and mercury in contact with clean glass θ≈ 1300

Figure 1.4(c):
Depression of column
for nonwetting liquid

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Exercises:

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 Answer:
1.9: a) 4.32x10-3 m/s
b) 70.2 kg
c) 13.4 N
d) 22.3 m/s2
e) 1.12 N.s/m2

1.10: a) 4.66 x 104 ft

b) 5.18 x 10-2 lb/ft3
c) 3.12 x 10-3 slugs/ft3
d) 2.36 x 10-2 ft.lb/s
e) 5.17 x 10-6 ft/s

1.13: SG = 1.37

1.14: ρ = 1150 kg/m3

γ = 11.3 kN/m3

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 1.16: γ = 12 kN/m3
ρ = 1.22 x 103 kg/m3
SG = 1.22

1.19: ρ = 0.00222
slugs/ft3
ρ = 1.14 kg/m3

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