P1X Dynamics &

Relativity:
Newton & Einstein
Part I - “I frame no hypotheses;
for whatever is not deduced from
Dynamics READ the
textbook!
the phenomena is to be called a
section numbers hypothesis; and hypotheses,
in syllabus
Motion whether metaphysical or physical,
whether of occult qualities or
Forces – Newton’s Laws
mechanical, have no place in
Simple Harmonic Motion experimental philosophy.”
Circular Motion

http://ppewww.ph.gla.ac.uk/~parkes/teaching/Dynamics/Dynamics.html Chris Parkes

October 2007
 Motion x e.g
• Position [m] dx
• Velocity [ms-1]
– Rate of change of position 0
dx t
v dt
dt v
• Acceleration [ms-2]
– Rate of change of velocity
dv d 2 x 0
a  2 t
dt dt
a

0
 Equations of motion in 1D
– Initially (t=0) at x0
– Initial velocity u,
– acceleration a,
s=ut+1/2 at2,
where s is displacement from
x  x0  ut  at 1
2
2
initial position
Differentiate w.r.t. time: v=u+at
dx v 2  (u  at ) 2  u 2  2uat  a 2t 2
 v  u  at
dt v 2  u 2  2a(ut  12 at 2 )
2 v2=u2+2 as
d x
2
aa
dt
 2D motion: vector quantities
Scalar: 1 number
• Position is a vector
Vector: magnitude & direction,
– r, (x,y) or (r,  ) >1 number
– Cartesian or
cylindrical polar co- Y
ordinates
– For 3D would specify
z also
• Right angle triangle r y

x=r cos , y=r sin  0 x
X
r2=x2+y2, tan  = y/x
 vector addition
• c=a+b
y
cx= ax +bx b
cy= ay +by
can use unit vectors i,j a c

i vector length 1 in x direction

x
j vector length 1 in y direction
scalar product a

finding the angle between two vectors
b
a  b  ab cos  a xbx  a y by a,b, lengths of a,b
Result is a scalar
ab a x bx  a y by
cos   
ab 2 2
a x  a y  bx  by
2 2
 Vector product
e.g. Find a vector perpendicular to two vectors
c  ab
c  a b sin 
iˆ ˆj kˆ  a y bz  a z by 
 
c  a  b  ax ay a z   a z bx  a xbz 
bx by bz  a x by  a y bx 

c
Right-handed
Co-ordinate system b


a
 Velocity and acceleration vectors
• Position changes with time
• Rate of change of r is Y
velocity
– How much is the change in a
very small amount of time t

d r r (t  t )  r (t ) r(t)
v  Limit at  t0 r(t+t)
dt t
dx dy 0 x
vx  , vy  X
dt dt
d v v(t  t )  v(t ) d 2 r
a   2
dt t dt
dv x dv y
ax  , ay 
dt dt
 Projectiles
Motion of a thrown / fired
object mass m under gravity
Velocity components:
y v
vx=v cos 
x,y,t
 vy=v sin 
Force: -mg in y direction
x
acceleration: -g in y direction
x direction y direction
a: ax=0
ay=-g
v=u+at: vx=vcos  + axt = vcos  vy=vsin  - gt
s=ut+0.5at2: x=(vcos )t y= vtsin  -0.5gt2

This describes the motion, now we can use it to solve problems

 Relative Velocity 1D
e.g. Alice walks forwards along a boat at 1m/s and the boat moves at 2m/s
What is Alice’s velocity as seen by Bob ?
If Bob is on the boat it is just 1 m/s
If Bob is on the shore it is 1+2=3m/s
If Bob is on a boat passing in the opposite direction….. and the earth is
spinning…
Velocity relative to an observer

Relative Velocity 2D
e.g. Alice walks across the boat at 1m/s.
As seen on the shore: V boat 2m/s
θ V Alice 1m/s
V
V  1  2  5m / s
2 2
relative to shore
tan   1 / 2,   27
 Changing co-ordinate system
Define the frame of reference – the co-ordinate system –
in which you are measuring the relative motion.
y (x’,y’) Frame S’
(boat) v boat w.r.t shore
Frame S
(shore)
vt x’

x
Equations for (stationary) Alice’s position on boat w.r.t shore
i.e. the co-ordinate transformation from frame S to S’
Assuming S and S’ coincide at t=0 :
x  x' vt Known as Gallilean transformations
As we will see, these simple relations do not hold in
y  y' special relativity
We described the motion, position, velocity, acceleration,
now look at the underlying causes
Newton’s laws
• First Law
– A body continues in a state of rest or uniform
motion unless there are forces acting on it.
• No external force means no change in velocity
• Second Law
– A net force F acting on a body of mass m [kg]
produces an acceleration a = F /m [ms-2]
• Relates motion to its cause

F = ma units of F: kg.m.s-2, called Newtons [N]

 • Third Law
– The force exerted by A on B is equal and opposite to
the force exerted by B on A
Fb
•Force exerted by
Block on table block on table is Fa

Fa=-Fb Weight Fa •Force exerted by

table on block is Fb
(a Force)
(Both equal to weight)

Examples of Forces
weight of body from gravity (mg),
- remember m is the mass, mg is the force (weight)
tension, compression
Friction,
 Force Components
•Force is a Vector F1
R
•Resultant from vector sum
F2
R  F1  F2
•Resolve into perpendicular components
Fx  F cos 
Fy  F sin  Fy F


F x  Fx iˆ Fx

F y  Fy ˆj
 Free Body Diagram
• Apply Newton’s laws to particular body
• Only forces acting on the body matter
– Net Force F
• Separate problem into each body

e.g.

Body 1
Supporting Force Body 2
from plane Tension Tension in rope
(normal
force) In rope

Block Weight
Friction Block weight
 Tension & Compression
• Tension
– Pulling force - flexible or rigid
• String, rope, chain and bars
• Compression mg

– Pushing force mg
• Bars mg

• Tension & compression act in BOTH

directions.
– Imagine string cut
– Two equal & opposite forces – the tension
 Friction
• A contact force resisting sliding
– Origin is chemical forces between atoms in the two
surfaces.
• Static Friction (fs)
– Must be overcome before an objects starts to move
• Kinetic Friction (fk)
– The resisting force once sliding has started
• does not depend on speed
N
fs or fk F
fs  s N
fk  k N
mg
 Simple Harmonic Motion
Oscillating system that can be described by sinusoidal function
Pendulum, mass on a spring, electromagnetic waves (E&B fields)…

• Occurs for any system with Linear restoring Force

F  k x » Same form as Hooke’s law
d2x k
– Hence Newton’s 2nd F  ma  2   x
dt m
– Satisfied by sinusoidal expression
x  A sin t or x  A cos t A is the oscillation amplitude
 is the angular frequency

– Substitute in to find 
dx d 2x
x  A sin t   A cos t  2   A 2 sin t
dt dt
k k Frequencyf   Period T  1
   
2
 in radians/sec Hz, cycles/sec 2 Sec for 1 cycle f
m m
 SHM General Form

x  A sin(t   )
Phase
(offset of sine wave
in time)
Displacement
Oscillation frequency
A is the oscillation amplitude   2f
- Maximum displacement
f  1/ T
 SHM Examples
1) Mass on a spring
• Let weight hang on spring
• Pull down by distance x
L’ – Let go!
Restoring Force F=-kx
In equilibrium x
k
F=-kL’=mg 
m

Energy: K.E.  1
2 mv 2
(assuming spring has negligible mass)
U  12 kx 2 potential energy of spring
But total energy conserved
At maximum of oscillation, when x=A and v=0
Total E  2 kA Similarly, for all SHM (Q. : pendulum energy?)
1 2
SHM Examples 2) Simple Pendulum
•Mass on a string
 Working along swing: F   mg sin 
L Not actually SHM, proportional to sin, not 
x
but if is small sin    
l
F  mg sin   mg x
x L

c.f. this with F=-kx on previous slide

mg sin Hence, Newton 2: d 2x g
2
  x
dt l
mg and
g Angular frequency for
 simple pendulum,
l
small deflection
 360o = 2 radians
Circular Motion 180o =  radians
90o = /2 radians
• Rotate in circle with constant angular speed 
R – radius of circle
s – distance moved along circumference R s
y
=t, angle  (radians) = s/R =t
• Co-ordinates x t=0
x= R cos  = R cos t
y= R sin  = R sin t d
v x  ( R cos t )   R sin t
• Velocity dt
d
v y  ( R sin t )  R cos t
•Acceleration dt
d d N.B. similarity
a x  (v x )  ( R sin t )   R 2 cos t
dt dt with S.H.M eqn
d d 1D projection of a
a y  (v y )  ( R cos wt )   R 2 sin t
dt dt circle is SHM
 Magnitude and direction of motion
•Velocity v 2  v x  v y  R 2 w2 sin 2 t  R 2 2 cos 2 t   2 R 2
2 2

v=R vy cos t 1
tan    
And direction of velocity vector v vx  sin t tan 
Is tangential to the circle     90o v

•Acceleration 
a
2 2
a  ax  a y 
2

R 2 w4 cos 2 t  R 2 4 sin 2 t   4 R 2
a= 2R=(R)2/R=v2/R
a x   2 x
And direction of acceleration vector a
a y   2 y
a= -2r Acceleration is towards centre of circle
 Force towards centre of circle
• Particle is accelerating
– So must be a Force
• Accelerating towards centre of circle
– So force is towards centre of circle
F=ma= mv2/R in direction –r 2
v
or using unit vector F  m rˆ
r
• Examples of central Force
1. Tension in a rope
2. Banked Corner
3. Gravity acting on a satellite
 Myth of Newton & apple.
Gravitational Force He realised gravity is universal
same for planets and apples
•Any two masses m1,m2 attract each other
with a gravitational force: F
F
m1m2
F G 2 r
m2
r m1
Newton’s law of Gravity
Inverse square law 1/r2, r distance between masses
The gravitational constant G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
•Explains motion of planets, moons and tides
m m  GmE  m =5.97x10 24
kg,
Gravity on F G E
2
  m
2 
E
RE=6378km
earth’s surface RE R
 E 
GmE 2
Mass, radius of earth
Or F  mg Hence, g  2
 9.81ms
RE
N.B. general solution is an ellipse not a circle - planets travel in ellipses around sun

Satellites
•Centripetal Force provided by Gravity
Mm mv 2 m
F G 2  R
R R
M M
v G
2 M
v G
R R
Distance in one revolution s = 2R, in time period T, v=s/T
R
T  2R / v  2R T2R3 , Kepler’s 3rd Law
GM
•Special case of satellites – Geostationary orbit
•Stay above same point on earth T=24 hours
3
R2
24  60  60  2
GM E
R  42,000km
 Dynamics I – Key Points
1. 1D motion, 2D motion as vectors
– s=ut+1/2 at2 v=u+at v2=u2+2 as
– Projectiles, 2D motion analysed in
components
2. Newton’s laws
– F = ma
– Action & reaction
3. SHM Oscillating system that can be described by sinusoidal function

F  k x x  A sin(t   )
4. Circular motion (R,)
2
v
F   m rˆ Force towards centre of circle
r