TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO BI0-STATISTICS

For BVSC & AH

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 REFERENCES
 Aryal, U. R. & Shrestha, Y. M. (2015). Biostatistics for
medical sciences. Kathmandu: Makalu Publication
house.
 Gupta, S. C. (2012). Fundamental of statistics. Mumbai:
Himalaya Publication House.
 Mahajan, B. K. (2016). Biostatistics. New Delhi: Jaypee
Brothers.
 Panta, P. R. (2015). A text book of bio-statistics.
Kathmandu: Vidyarthi Pustak Bhandar.
 Patel S. P. (2015). Biostatistics. Kathmandu: Samiksha
Publication
 Rastogi, V. B. (2015). Biostatistics. New Dehli: MTDCEC
 Siegel, S. (1965). Non-Parametric statistics for the
behavioral sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing
Com. Inc.
 Wayne, W. D. (2010). Biostatistics, basic concepts and
methodology for the health sciences: London: Wiley 2
student edition.
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REMEMBER

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 UNIT ONE INTRODUCTION
What is the difference between these two
phenomenon?
Days Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
Temperatu 24° 26° 27° 30° 29° 28° 25°
re
Distribution of Hemoglobin count in 100 ml Blood of
175 children
9.0 – 9.4 2
9.5 – 9.9 5
10.0 – 10.4 7
10.5 – 10.9 20
11.0 – 11.4 32
11.5 – 11.9 40
12.0 – 12.4 25
12.5 – 12.9 16
13.0 – 13.4 10
13.4 – 13.9 8
14.0 -14.4 5
11
14.5 – 14.9 5
CONTD…

 Numerical expression of evidence of

certain phenomena is called data.
 The subject deals with such type of
figures, called data, is known as statistics.
 Statistics is a subject that deals with the
number and figures describing certain
phenomena in a given circumstances.
 It is a subject has been now introduced at
all levels of education.

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 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF STATISTICS

 It is not a new discipline.

 It is as old as the human being

 Probably used from the existence of

human being.
 Utility of it was very much restricted
and limited in the past.
 Now a days its application is wide
range.

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 CONTD…

Language Latin Italian French German

Status Status Statista Statistique Statistik
Meaning Political Political Political Political
State State State State
 Derived Word:
 Thus in ancient time it is taken as the science of
kings or science of the statecrafts and is used to
the administrative activities of the state.
 In ancient time it is limited to collection of data by
government for farming military and fiscal policy
 In Nepal before unification PN Shah collected and
maintained the records of land, agriculture, trade
and wealth.
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CONTD….

 In modern time subject developed by R. A.

Fisher and application of it in different
discipline like; genetics, psychology,
education, agriculture, health science etc.
by R. A. Fisher
 He is known as Father of Statistics
Descripti
Theoreti ve
cal
Statistics Inferenti
al
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CONTD…

1. Descriptive Statistics:
 involves methods of collecting,
organizing, picturing and
summarizing information from data.
2. Inferential Statistics:
 involves methods of using
information from a sample to draw
conclusions about the population.

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CONTD…
Includes

Descriptiv -collecting
-organizing
e -summarizing
Statistics -analyzing
-presenting
Statistic
s Includes
-making
inferences
-hypothesis
Inferential testing

Statistics -Determining
relationship
-Making
predictions
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 DEFINITION OF STATISTICS (SINGULAR SENSE)
 Croxton & Cowden defined,“ The
collection, classification, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of numerical
data”.
1. Collection of Data

2. Organization and classification of data

3. Presentation of Data

4. Analysis of Data

5. Interpretation of data

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 Different Steps of Statistical Methods in Singular Sense

Step 1 Collection of data

Census method Sampling Method

Step 2 Organisation of Data

Editing Classification
Organisation

Step 3 Presentation of Data

Tabular Graphic Diagrammatic

Step 4 Analysis of data

Averages Frequency distribution

Dispersion Correlation

Step 5 Interpretation of data

Reference: Biostatistics: Veer Bala Rastogi MEDTEC. Page no. 19

DEFINITION OF STATISTICS (PLURAL SENSE)
 Professor Horace Secrist define statistics as,“ By
Statistics we mean aggregate of facts affected to a
marked extend by multiplicity of causes numerically
expressed, enumerated or estimated according to
reasonable standards of accuracy, collected in a
systematic manner for a predetermined purpose and
placed in relation to each other”
1. Statistics are aggregate of facts

2. Statistics are affected by multiple causes

3. Statistics are expressed numerically

4. Estimated according to reasonable standard of

accuracy
5. Statistics are collected in a systematic manner

6. Statistics are collected for a predetermined purpose

7. Statistics are placed in relation to each other

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 BIO-STATISTICS

 Bio-statics has two field of

study Bio-
statisti
cs
• Stands for
Bios Biology
• Stands for
collection,
Statisti classification,
cs analysis and
evaluation of
facts to reach
some
inferences of
data related
to biology
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 Sources
of data

Records Surveys Experiments

Comprehensive Sample

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 APPLICATION OF BIO - STATISTICS
1. Biostatistics is the application of statistical methods to a
wide variety of fields of biology like:
2. human biology

3. Molecular biology

4. Biochemistry

5. Medicine: Pharmacy and pharmacology, medical

biostatistics
6. Public health: community and public health

7. Agriculture and forestry

8. Biomass estimation

9. Statistical ecology

10. Veterinary

11. Microbiology

12. Environmental study

13. Genetics: population genetics, applied genetics

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 FUNCTIONS OF BIO-STATISTICS
1. To represent facts in the form of numerical data
2. To Simplify complexities
3. To facilitate comparison of data
4. To help classification of data
5. To formulate and test hypothesis for the purpose
of co-relation
6. To estimate for the present forecast future trend
7. To help in the formulation of policies
8. To enlarge individual knowledge and experience
like all other sciences
9. To determine relationship between different
phenomena
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HISTORY
1. Adopphe Quetelet (1796 – 1874) Belgian Mathematician and astronomer
 He used statistical methods for the first time to the problem of biology

 Used statistical theory as a general method for research

2. Francis Galton (1822 – 1911) cousin of Charles Darwin called the father of
Bio-statistics
 Notable contributions in the field of heredity, eugenics, anthropometry and

psychology
 Also contributed on correlation between two variables

3. Karl Pearson (1857 – 1936) applied statistical methods in wide application

in this field
 He developed the descriptive and correlational statistics

 Whole doctrine of heredity rests on statistical basis

4. W. F. R. Weldon (1860 – 1906) a zoologist at University college London

introduced the term biometry.
5. Ronald Aylmer Fisher (1890 – 1962) was much more contributed on this
field
 He developed estimation theory, exact sampling distribution, analysis of

variance & design of experiment.

 He developed estimation theory, exact sampling distribution, analysis of

variance & design of experiment.

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 GIANT PERSONALITIES IN THE FIELD

KARL PEARSON(1857 – 1936) SIR RONALD AYLMER FISHER FRANCIS GALTON (1822 –
(1890 – 1962) 1911)

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ROLE OF BIOSTATISTICS IN RESEARCH
1. Calculating averages
2. Variability of measurement

3. Portraying variability: different methods like graph

charts, tables etc.
4. Percentile and standard scores

5. Relationship between variables

6. Combination of variables

7. Predict variables

8. Determining the validity of measurements

9. Determining the reliability of measurement

instruments
10. Comparison of performance

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 Difference between Statistics and Bio-statistics

Statistics Bio-Statistics
1. It is the branch of science 1. It is the application of
where we plan, gather, statistical science to analyze
arrange and analyze public health related
information about a particular problems to further
collection of individuals or biomedical research.
objects under investigation.
2. It is the mathematical body 2. It is the biomedical body of
of science. science.
3. It is concerned with general 3. It is concerned with the
data on any discipline: study and analysis of
collection, classification, biological and medical data.
presentation, analysis and
interpretation.
4. It is utilized to reach a 4. It is applied mostly in
conclusion in each and every biological evaluations.
field.
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CONTD..
5. Statistical activity spans a 5. Bio-statistical activity
broad range of individual spans a broad range of
problem, social problem, scientific inquiry from the
science and technology. broad structure and functions
of human beings. Though the
interactions of human beings
with environment, including
problems of environmental
sanitations, diseases,
organizations of health care
system and financing.
6. After studying statistics, 6. After studying biostatistics,
people get opportunities people get opportunities
every aspects. related to biomedical sector.
7. It is directed to questions 7. It is specially directed to
that arise in almost all field. questions that arise in
biomedical science.
8. It is the vast field of study 8. It has no any sub-divisions.
which has so many sub- 29
 Statistical Terms

1: Data
 It is a set of facts (entries or observations)
 Facts or pieces of information.
 General concepts refers to the fact of some existing
information.
 Data can be divided into two types
 i. Quantitative data & ii. Qualitative data

i: Quantitative data
 Those information expressed in quantitative form.
 Numerical facts and figures.

 Set of information's collected for a predetermined

purpose in the form of numbers.
 Example: number of attack of diarrhea, no. of children in
a family, size of house hold, pulse rate, height, weight,
length, blood pressure, survival time, etc.
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 ii. Qualitative Data
 Those information expressed in non-numerical form
 It is classified by counting the individuals having
some characteristics or attributes.
 Example:

 Gender (male, female, transgender),

 Beauty(very beautiful, moderate beautiful, ugly)

 Intelligence (highly intelligence, intelligence, doll)

 Character (high, medium, low, less)

 Blood group (O, A, B, AB)

 The qualitative data if have only two categories is

called binary or dichotomous like: (male/female),
(sick/well), (live/ death), (married/ single),
(pregnant/ not pregnant) etc.
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 Primary and Secondary data
 Statistical data may be classified into two types and they
are: Primary and Secondary
1. Primary data: Those data collected by the researcher
himself(or his reliable agents) for the research purpose
involving in the field using sets of questionnaire is
known as “Primary data”. These data are collected for
the first time are original in character for the research
purpose.
2. Secondary data: Those data which are already collected
by others for the research purpose and once used are
called “Secondary Data”. Such data are primary for the
collector and secondary for the other users. These data
can be obtained from journals, reports, publication from
different research organization, publication from the
personal researcher etc.

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Difference between Primary and Secondary data
SN Primary Data SN Secondary Data
1 Primary data are original in 1 Secondary data are not original in the
sense that they are sense that, they are collected by
personally collected by the someone other, than the concern
researcher involving researcher so it may or may not fit for
directly/ indirectly by the same research purpose.
himself/herself in the
research concern field so it
is more reliable.
2 Primary data collection is 2 Secondary data are readily available
more expensive and time at less expenses.
consuming.
3 Primary data are collected 3 Secondary data might have been
as per requirement of the collected with different objective.
concern investigators.

4 Primary data may be 4 Secondary data may not be

influenced by personal influenced by personal prejudice of
prejudice of the the investigator.
investigator.

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 Methods of Collecting Primary Data

The following methods are commonly

used for the collecting the primary data:
1. Direct Personal Interviews

2. Indirect Oral Interviews

3. Information from Local Correspondents

4. Questionnaire sent by Mail/e-mail

5. Telephone Survey

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STEPS FOLLOWED IN COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
• Planning the study:
• Reviewing the earlier work
Step • Scope of study
• Determination of statistical units
1 • Method of data collection

• Preparation of schedules and

questionnaire:
• Clarity
Step • Objectivity of study
2 • Number and arrangement of
questions
• Reliability and accuracy
• Selection of sample: Samples are
Step to be selected in such a way that
they are supposed to be true
3 representative of the population

• Editing:
Step • Field edition
4 • Office edition

Step • Data processing:

5
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 Precaution in Using Secondary Data
1. Reliability of data:
 Reliability refers to the preciseness of the procedure used for the data collection,
so that all the persons can use same procedure which exhibits the approximately
same results.
 Investigator should be careful about the reliability of the data.

 The reliability, integrity and experience of the collecting organization or institution.

 The reliability of the sources of information.

 The method applied for the collection and analysis of data.

2. Validity:
 It is the use of appropriate procedure for data collection.

 If a biased scale is used, the repeated measurements will give the same results
but they are not valid because the same mistakes or same performance is used
during measurement.
3. Suitability of data:
 It is essential to see whether the collected data are suitable for the purpose of
inquiry or not.
 Investigators should conform various terms and units which are clearly defined
and uniform or not.
4. Adequacy of data:
 It is necessary to see whether it is adequate or not for the inquiry.

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 Classification
 According to Connor, “Classification is
the process of arranging collected
information(either actually or notionally)
in groups and classes according to their
resemblances and affinities and gives
expression to the unity of attributes that
may subsist among a diversity of
individual”.
 In other words, classification is grouping
of data on the basis of any common
characteristics they may have.
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 TYPES
There are four types of classification of data:
1. On qualitative basis: Classification of the total population of a
country on the basis of gender, religion, occupation etc.
belongs to this type. This is also known as classification by
attributes.
2. On quantitative basis: Classification of the total population in a
natural countable way. Here, the basis of classification is some
variables, and hence this is also known as classification by
variables.
3. On time basis: Some statistical data are arranged in order of
their time of occurrence. Production of a factory may be shown
by weeks, months, quarters or years. Statistical data classified
according to time as known as time series.
4. On geographical basis: The total population of a country may
be classified by states or districts, exports of a particular
commodity from India may be classified by the country to
which exported. The basis of classification in such cases is by
geographical regions.
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 CODING
 Coding means assigning numerals or other
symbols to the categories or responses.
 For each question a coding scheme is
designed in such a way that the bulkiness
name of the variable will be represented by
the shortly written code.
 Suppose a variable ‘educational status’ can
be coded as:
 0 = undergraduate

 1 = graduate

 2= post graduate

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 DATA PRESENTATION

 After arranging the data in a proper order they

have to classify and present according to their
characteristics.
 The systematically collected data can be
presented by the following ways:
 Frequency Distribution: Individual, Discrete and
Continuous (inclusive and exclusive)
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution
 Relative Frequency Distribution
 Tables (simple and Complex)
 Charts and Diagrams

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 DATA RECORDING
 Tabulation of data:
Tabulation is the process of arranging
the data in an orderly manner into rows
and columns.
The purpose of the tabulation is to
simplify the presentation of data and to
facilitate comparison between related
information so collected.
It is the final steps of collection of data
and is a stepping stone to the analysis
and interpretation of facts and figures.
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 DIFFERENT PARTS OF TABLE
1. Table number: In order to identify tables, every
table should be numbered. The number of table is
normally kept at the top of the table either at the
centre above the title or at the side of the table.
2. Title of the table: every table should have suitable
title that indicating the type of data contained.
Title should be short, clear, simple and non-
ambiguous.
3. Caption(column heading): The title of the column
is known as caption. The word caption should also
be simple and brief. Caption are usually written at
the middle of the column in small letters to save
the space. If the different columns are measured
in different units, the units must clearly be
mentioned in the columns.
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CONTD…
4. Stubs (Row heading): Stubs means row heading. They are at
the extreme left. The function of stubs in the horizontal rows
is same as the function of captions in the vertical columns.
5. Body of the table: This is the most important part of table. It
contains data. The data are entered from the top to bottom
in columns and from left to right in rows.
6. Head note: generally, a head note is kept just below the title
of the table indicating the unit of measurement applicable to
the data displayed. It is normally kept within brackets. It
helps to clearify the points relating the content of the table
that have not been included in the title nor in the caption
and stubs. Example: The unit of measurement such as
thousands of rupees.
7. Foot note: Foot notes are written directly below the body of
the table whenever necessary. Anything in a table which can
not be understood by readers from the table, captions and
stubs should be explained in foot note.
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CONTD…

7. Sources: The sources from which the data have been

taken should be mentioned. The sources should be given
at the bottom of the table, just below the foot note.
A format of blank table is given below:
Table no.:
Title (in capital letter)
(Head note if any)

Stub Caption (column

heading heading)
Stub entries Body of table

Foot note:
Sources:

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TYPES OF TABLE
1. Simple table: A simple table is one in which the data are
presented according to only one character.
Table No.
Title AREAS OF SAARC COUNTRIES
Head note:(in square kilometers)
Countries Area
Bangladesh 1,43,998
Bhutan 46,500
India 32,87,590
Maldives 9,000
Nepal 1,47,181
Pakistan 7,69,099
Srilanka 65,610

Source: Statistical pocket book 1988

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CONTD…
2. Complex table:
 Data are presented according to two or
more inter-related characteristics
simultaneously.
 If two characteristics are shown in a table,
it is said to be two-way table.
 If three characteristics are shown in a
table, it is said to three way.
 When four or more characteristics are
shown simultaneously it is case of
manifold tabulation.
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CONTD…

Table No.
Title: STUDENTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL,
ACCORDING TO GENDER FOR 2011 – 2012

Year No. of Students Total

Boys Girls transgende
r
2011
2012
Total
Sources:

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CONTD…
Three ways table:
Table No.
Title: DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS OF
T. U. ACCORDING TO GENDER, AGE & FACULTY

Age Faculty
Humani Manageme Science Education Others Tota
ty nt l
B G T To B G T To B G T To B G T To B G T To

19-
22
22-
25
27-
abov
e note: B = Boys, G = girls, T = (transgender) , To = Total
Foot
Total Source:
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 Sample and Sampling
Terminologies Definition
1. Population: A group of whole individuals under study.
i. Finite: A population containing finite number of objects
or items. Eg. The students in a certain college.
ii. Infinite A population containing infinite number of
objects or items .
Eg. All married women of 20 to 35 years of age.
2. Sample Number of units drawn from the population for
the study.
3. Census If every items of the population is examined
under study then it is census survey.
4. Sampling Process by which appropriate samples are drawn
from the population.
5. Sampling List of each and every units in the population.
frame
6. Sampling unit Individual unit from the sampling frame.
7. Sample size Number of samples taken for the study.

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 Sample and Sampling
Terminologies Definition
8. Sample statistic Information provided by the sample or A summary
value of the variable for a sample.
9. Parameter A summary value of the variable for a population.
10. Sampling Process by which samples are drawn from the
process population
11. Unit is the object or individual or group that can be
investigated as the source of basic information. For
example: individual patient, small sub-areas of land
etc.
12. Population Number of items in population having same
proportion characteristics. Population proportion size (P) = .
13. sample Number of items in sample having same
proportion characteristics.
14. Sampling ratio Sample proportion size (p) = .
14. Sampling ratio The ratio of sample size of the target population.
For example: Population = 20,000 people, sample
= 200 people. Then, .

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 Notation

Population Sample
Size ‘N’ ‘n’
Mean ‘μ’ ‘X̅’
Standard Deviation ‘σ’ ‘S’ or ‘s’
Proportion ‘P’ ‘p’
Regression ‘’ ‘b’
coefficient
Correlation ‘’ ‘r’
coefficient

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CENSUS VS SAMPLE
Census Sample
Refers to complete inclusion of Sample is a part of the
elements in the population. population.

When is census appropriate? When is sample appropriate?

If the size of population is small. If the size of the population is
large.
If researcher is interested in time and cost are main
gathering information from consideration in the research
every individual

If the population is If the population is

heterogeneous. homogeneous.

For quality control mechanism. there are circumstances when a

For example: Quality of food census is not possible
served in a mess. Quality of
medicine of a certain factory.

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 Variables

Food
Habit
Regular
Weight
Exercise

Blood
Heridity Age
Pressure

53
 Variables
 Variables are the conditions or characteristics that the
experimenter (researcher) manipulates, controls or observes.
 It can be a persons, things, events groups, objects, ideas, feelings
etc.
 The variables are the symbol to which numerals or values are
assigned.
 For example:
 Gender is a variable. The two/three possible values of Gender are
(male/female/transgender)
 Education is a variable. The three possible values of education are
(undergraduate, graduate, post graduate)
 Other example of the variable are: length of service, employ
attitude, job satisfaction, height, length, weight, income,
expenditure, no. of patient, no. of medicine etc.
 Variables are often symbolized by a letters of the English
alphabets such as: x, y, z etc. these letters of alphabet symbolizes
a particular value for a particular variable.
 Variables are of two types and they are:
54
CONTD…
i. Numerical Variable (Quantitative): When all the values of the
variable are expressed in numbers then it is called numerical
variable. For example: income, weight, height, length.
 Numerical variable also can be further sub divided into:

i a. Discrete Numerical Variable: It is a variable in which values of

the variable take in whole numbers. Example: no. of patient, no.
of children, no. of medicine.
i b. Continuous Numerical Variable: It is a variable in which
values of the variable take in fractions or in decimal numbers.
Example: weight, height, length, blood pressure, sugar level.
ii. Qualitative Variable: When the values of the variables cannot
be expressed numerically but rather are descriptive in nature or
just a classification, they are described as qualitative variables.
Example: gender (male, female, transgender), severity of pain
(mild, moderate, severe).
 Qualitative variable are measured on a nominal scale and are
also called attributes.

55
 Attributes Variables
 Those characteristics that cannot be altered by the experimenter.
 An attribute is a specific element or value in a variable.

 For example: The variable gender has two attributes: (male and
female).
 Satisfaction might be defined as five attributes as:

1 = very satisfied, 2 = satisfied, 3= neutral,

4= dissatisfied, 5= very dissatisfied.
 Such independent variables as gender, race, intelligence level,
beauty have already been determined are categorized as attribute.
 Variables also can be divided in to independent and dependent:

i. Independent Variables: The independent variable (s) is (are) the

condition (s) or characteristic (s) that the experimenter (researcher)
controls in his/her attempt to ascertain their relationship to observed
phenomenon.
ii. Dependent Variables: The dependent variable (s) is (are) the
condition (s) or characteristic (s) that appear, disappear or changes
as the experimenter introduces, removes or changes independent
variable (s).
56
 SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
 Scaling is a process of assigning numbers or symbols to the various
categories of a particular concept we may wish to measure.
 Once a scale of measurement for a variable has been identify, this then
dictates the calculations that can be done to summarize the variable.
 There are four scales of measurement to which a given variable can be
assigned to:

Nominal
Qualitative
Ordinal
Scales of
measureme
nt
Interval
Quantitativ
e
Ratio

57
 a. Nominal Scale
 Classify a response from a variable into mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories i. e. possible values are categories.
 This follows for only qualitative classification.

 Measurement of this scale does not include any notion of magnitude of

the individual measurement.
 The categories are distinguished by labels, name, tags or numerals.
 Nominal data are numerical in name only because they do not have any
properties of ordinary arithmetic.
 The symbols or numerical used have no any meaning.
 For example:

1. Blood group: (O, A, B, AB)

2. Gender: (Male, female, transgender)
3. Residence: (urban, rural)
4. Occupation: (private, government)
5. Marital status: (single, married, widowed, widower, divorce)
6. Educational status: (undergraduate, graduate, post graduate)
7. Religion: (Hindu, Muslim, Christen, Buddhism,…)
8. Nationality: (Nepalese, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, American,…)
58
 b. Ordinal Scale
 Nominal scale can’t be used for ranking purpose.
 The variables has been categorized or leveled with
meaningful natural order.
 All observation are not only different from category to
category.
 When they can be ranked according to certain criterion or
priorities or importance then they are said to be
measured on an ordinal scale.
 The distance between the categories or scale positions
has no implications
 For example:

1. Pain: (0=none, 1= mild, 2= moderate, 3= sever)

2. Smoker: (0 = non-smoker, 1 = ex-smoker, 2 = light
smoker, 3 = heavy smoker)
3. Socio economic status: ( 0 = lower, 1=mild, 2=upper)
4. Attitude: (0 = negative, 1= bad, 2 = positive) 59
 c. Interval Scale
 This scale assumes that data have equal intervals.
 It is based on mathematics & generally used in quantitative
research.
 Assumes that exact value of the variables can’t be predicted
but helps in the prediction of position and distance between
the variables.
 It is based on mathematics, it is more powerful than nominal
and ordinal scale.
 It represents equal differences between objects and the
interval differences are meaningful.
 But we can not define the ratio relationship.

 Example:

1. Time measured as 10:00 am and 11:00 am means that there

is a hour difference in between.
2. The differences between 10˚C & 20˚ is same as 80˚C & 90˚. But
we can not say that 80˚C is twice as hot as 40˚C.
60
 d. Ratio Scale
 This scale is considered as the most powerful scale.
 Ratio scale is an extension of interval scale.

 It shows the characteristics of all the scales.

 It has absolute zero origin.

 It helps to calculate the ratio of difference between the

variables.
 It is based on mathematics and always used in quantitative
research.
 The scale encompasses a fixed origin indicating absence of
characteristic.
 All the mathematical operations can be applied to this scale.

 The difference/addition and relative magnitude of scores can

be computed.
 Most biological variables are continuous (e. g. BP,
cholesterol, height, weight, pulse rate etc.)
 We can say that 20 seconds is twice as long as 10 seconds.
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 EXAMPLE

Examples of types of Data

Quantitative
Continuous Discrete
Blood pressure, Height, Number of children in a
Weight, Age family, number of attack
of asthma per week
Categorical
Ordinal (Ordered categories) Nominal (Unordered
categories)
 Grade of breast cancer  Gender (male/female)
(Better, same, worse)  Alive or dead
 Disagree, neutral, agree  Blood group O, A, B,
AB

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