FCE 531: STRUCTURAL

DESIGN
LESSON 1(B)

EUROCODE WIND
LOADING AND DESIGN
MAY 2018
 CODES OF PRACTICE FOR WIND
LOADING
• CP3 Chapter V: Part 2

• BS 6399- Part 2

• Eurocode EN 1991-1-4:2005 2
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 Comparison between EN199-1- and current UK practice

EN1991-1-4 UK Practice

Buildings (static) BS6399-2

Buildings (mildly dynamic) BS6399-2

Buildings (dynamic) No direct equivalent (ESDU)

Bridges Design manuals for roads and bridges, BD49, BD37

Chimneys (Steel) BS4076, CICIND

Chimneys (concrete) CICIND (Int. Committee for Industrial Chimneys)

Scaffolding BS5975, BS5973, BS EN 12811

Structural elements Limited guidance in BS6399-2 (CP3-V-2)

Lattice structures (not towers) No direct equivalent (CP3-V-2)

Spheres, domes, barrel vaults No direct equivalent (reference books, papers)

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 UK NATIONAL ANNEX EN1991-1-4
• EN1991-1-4 must be used in the UK with the accompanying
National Annex. The National Annex (NA) contains
information on National Determined Parameters (NDPs)
such as:
 Values and/or classes where alternatives are given in the
Eurocode
 Values to be used where only a symbol is given in the Eurocode
 Country specific geographical or climatic data
 Procedures to be used where alternative procedures are given in
the Eurocode
 Decisions on the application of informative annexes
 References to non-contradictory complementary information to
assist the user 7
UK NATIONAL ANNEX EN1991-1-4
(Contd….)
• A National Annex cannot change or modify
the content of the EN text in any way other
than where allowed for above.
• In EN1991-1-4 there are 61 NDPs; 51 in the
main body and 10 in the annexes. In most
cases a recommended procedure or value is
given, although national choice is allowed. The
UK National Annex provides an alternative for
a number of these procedures.
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Section 1 General
1.1 Scope
1.2 Normative references
1.3 Assumptions
1.4 Distinction between Principles and Application Rules
1.5 Design assisted by testing and measurements
1.6 Definitions
1.7 Symbols

Section 2 Design situations

Section 3 Modelling of wind actions

3.1 Nature
3.2 Representations of wind actions
3.3 Classification of wind actions
3.4 Characteristic values
3.5 Models

Section 4 Wind velocity and velocity pressure

4.1 Basis for calculation
4.2 Basic values
4.3 Mean wind
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4.3.1 Variation with height
4.3.2 Terrain roughness
4.3.3 Terrain orography
4.3.4 Large and considerably higher neighbouring structures
4.3.5 Closely spaced buildings and obstacles
4.4 Wind turbulence
4.5 Peak velocity pressure

Section 5 Wind actions

5.1 General
5.2 Wind pressure on surfaces
5.3 Wind forces

Section 6 Structural factor CsCd

6.1 General
6.2 Determination of CsCd
6.3 Detailed procedure
6.3.1 Structural factor CsCd
6.3.2 Serviceability assessments
6.3.3 Wake buffeting
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Section 7 Pressure and force coefficients
7.1 General
7.1.1 Choice of aerodynamic coefficient
7.1.2 Asymmetric and counteracting pressures and forces
7.1.3 Effects of ice and snow
7.2 Pressure coefficients for buildings
7.2.1 General
7.2.2 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
7.2.3 Flat roofs
7.2.4 Monopitch roofs
7.2.5 Duopitch roofs
7.2.6 Hipped roofs
7.2.7 Multispan roofs
7.2.8 Vaulted roofs and domes
7.2.9 Internal pressure
7.2.10 Pressure on walls or roofs with more than one skin
7.3 Canopy roofs
7.4 Free-standing walls, parapets, fences and signboards
7.4.1 Free-standing walls and parapets
7.4.2 Shelter factors for walls and fences
7.4.3 Signboards
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7.5 Friction coefficients
7.6 Structural elements with rectangular sections
7.7 Structural elements with sharp edged section
7.8 Structural elements with regular polygonal section
7.9 Circular cylinders
7.9.1 External pressure coefficients
7.9.2 Force coefficients
7.9.3 Force coefficients for vertical cylinders in a row arrangement
7.10 Spheres
7.11 Lattice structures and scaffoldings
7.12 Flags
7.13 Effective slenderness A and end-effect factor FjIj.

Section 8 Wind actions on bridges

8.1 General
8.2 Choice of the response calculation procedure
8.3 Force coefficients
8.3.1 Force coefficients in x-direction (general method)
8.3.2 Force in x-direction - Simplified Method
8.3.3 Wind forces on bridge decks in z-direction
8.3.4 Wind forces on bridge decks in y-direction 12
8.4 Bridge piers
8.4.1 Wind directions and design situations
8.4.2 Wind effects on piers

Annex A (informative) Terrain effects

A.1 Illustrations of the upper roughness of each terrain category
A.2 Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III and IV
A.3 Numerical calculation of orography coefficients
A.4 Neighbouring structures
A.5 Displacement height

Annex B (informative) Procedure 1 for determining the structural

factor CsCd
B.1 Wind turbulence
B.2 Structural factor
B.3 Number of loads for dynamic response
B.4 Service displacement and accelerations for serviceability
assessments of a vertical structure
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Annex C (informative) Procedure 2 for determining the structural factor
CsCd
C.1 Wind turbulence
C.2 Structural factor
C.3 Number of loads for dynamic response
C.4 Service displacement and accelerations for serviceability assessments

Annex D (informative) CsCd values for different types of structures

Annex E (informative) Vortex shedding and aero-elastic instabilities

E.1 Vortex shedding
E.1.1 General
E.1.2 Criteria for vortex shedding
E.1.3 Basic parameters for vortex shedding
E.1.4 Vortex shedding action
E.1.5 Calculation of the cross wind amplitude
E.1.6 Measures against vortex induced vibrations
E.2 Galloping
E.2.1 General

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E.2.2 Onset wind velocity
E.2.3 Classical galloping of coupled cylinders
E.3 Interference galloping of two or more free standing cylinders
E.4 Divergence and Flutter
E.4.1 General
E.4.2 Criteria for plate-like structures
E.4.3 Divergency velocity

Annex F (informative) Dynamic characteristics of structures

F.1 General
F.2 Fundamental frequency
F.3 Fundamental mode shape
F.4 Equivalent mass
F.5 logarithmic decrement of damping

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 DEFINITIONS
• Some of the terminology, symbols and
definitions used in EN1991-1-4 will be new.

• The major differences between EN1991-1-4

and UK practice is highlighted.

• The clause numbers indicate where the term

is first mentioned in EN1991-1-4. P indicates
that the clause is a Principle.
16
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Principles are general statements and
definitions for which there is no alternative, as
well as requirements and analytical models for
which no alternative is permitted unless
specifically stated.

• Clauses without the letter P are known as

Application Rules and are generally recognised
rules which comply with the Principles and
satisfy their requirements. 17
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Background response factor B (6.3.1(1)):
accounts for the lack of correlation of the
wind gusts over the surface of the structure or
element. There is no equivalent value in
BS6399-2.

• Basic velocity pressure qb (4.5(1)): derived

from the basic wind velocity (qb = 0.613 vb2).
There is no equivalent value in BS6399-2.
18
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Exposure factor Ce(z) (4.5(1)): accounts for the
effect of terrain, orography and building
height. Similar to Sb2 in BS6399-2. Note:
orography is equivalent to topography in
BS6399-2
• Force coefficient Cf (5.3(2)): the ratio of the
force acting on a structure or element to the
peak velocity pressure multiplied by an
appropriate area. There are no equivalent
values in BS6399-2. 19
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Friction coefficient Cfr (5.3(2)): the ratio of the
frictional drag on surfaces aligned parallel with
the wind to the peak velocity pressure
multiplied by an appropriate area. Corresponds
to Cf in BS6399-2.
• Fundamental basic wind velocity Vb,0 (4.2 (1)P):
this is the mean wind velocity for a 10 minute
averaging period with an annual risk of being
exceeded of 0.02, at a height of 10m above
ground level in flat open country terrain (terrain
category II). 20
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Basic wind velocity Vb (4.2(2)P) : is the
fundamental basic wind velocity modified to
account for seasonal and directional effects.
There is no direct equivalent value in BS6399-
2.
• Directional factor Cdir (4.2(2)P): used to modify
the basic wind velocity to produce wind
speeds with the same risk of being exceeded
in any wind direction. Cdir is the same as Sd in
BS6399-2. 21
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• There is no direct equivalent value in the main
body of BS6399-2. For use in the UK,
Vb,0 = Vb,0 * . Calt
•where
 Vb,0 * is the mean wind velocity for a 10 minute
averaging period with an annual risk of being
exceeded of 0.02, at a height of 10m above sea
level in terrain category II,
 Calt is the altitude factor which accounts for the
effects of altitude on the fundamental basic wind22
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Mean wind velocity Vm(z) (4.2(2)P Note 4): is the
basic wind velocity modified to account for
terrain roughness category and orography
effects (defined below). There is no direct
equivalent value in BS6399-2.
• Orography factor Co(z) (4.3.1(1)): used to
account for the increase in wind speed due to
topographic features such as hills, cliffs and
escarpments. Co(z) is obtained using the same
method for calculating topographic effects as
included in the Sa factor in BS6300-2. 23
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Pressure coefficients Cpe and Cpi (5.2(1)): the
ratio of the pressure acting on the external or
internal surfaces to the peak velocity
pressure. Corresponds to Cpe and Cpi in
BS6399-2.

• Peak velocity pressure qp(z) (4.5(1)): is the site

wind velocity taking account of the terrain and
building size. qp(z) corresponds to qs in BS6399-
2. 24
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Probability factor Cprob (4.2(2)P Note 4): used to
modify the basic wind velocity to change the
risk of the wind speed being exceeded. Cprob is
the same as Sp in BS6399-2.

• Resonant response factor R (6.3.1(1): accounts

for the effects of wind turbulence in resonance
with the vibration of the structure in its
fundamental mode of vibration. There is no
equivalent value in BS6399-2. 25
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Roughness factor Cr(z) (4.3.1(1)): used to modify
the mean wind speed to account for the terrain
roughness upwind of the site and the height of
the building or structure under consideration.
Cr(z) corresponds to Sc in the BS6399-2 directional
method.
• Season factor Cseason (4.2(2)P): used to modify the
basic wind velocity to produce wind speeds with
the same risk of being exceeded in any specific
sub-annual period. Cseason is the same as Ss in
BS6399-2. 26
 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)

• Structural factor CsCd (5.3(2)): takes account of

the effect of non-simultaneous wind action
over the surfaces of the structure or element
combined with the effect of dynamic response
of the structure or element.

• Cs and Cd correspond to Ca and (1 +Cr)

respectively in BS6399-2.

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 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)

• Turbulence intensity Lv(z) (4.4(1)): is the

standard deviation of the wind turbulence
divided by the mean wind velocity and is a
measure of the gustiness of the wind.

• Lv(z) corresponds to StTt in the BS6399-2

directional method.

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 DEFINITIONS (Contd….)
• Wind force Fw , Fw,e , Fw,i , Ffr (5.3(2): the wind
force acting on the overall structure or element
(Fw), on the external surfaces (Fw,e), on the
internal surfaces (Fw,i) or due to frictional forces
(Ffr). Corresponds to P and Pf in BS6399-2.
• Wind pressure We and Wi (5.2(1)): the wind
pressure acting on external and internal
building surfaces respectively. Corresponds to
Pe and Pi in BS6399-2.
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 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
• Outline of procedure for calculating
wind loads on structures (Wk)
1. Obtain basic wind speed Vb,0 from
meteorological maps of the region.

2. Calculate the altitude factor Calt which is a

function of the site altitude and the height of
the building (for those which are more than
10m tall).
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 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
(Contd….)
3. Choose a sector size and orientation for the
consideration of the directional effects. This
is preferred, though there is the option of
taking a non-directional approach and
considering the most onerous effects in each
direction.
4. For each sector, determine the directional
factor Cdir, which is a function of the wind
direction.
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 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
(Contd….)
5. For each sector determine the displacement
height hdis for the building in urban areas.
6. For each sector, determine the distance from
the closest shoreline to the site.
7. For each sector, determine the exposure
factor Ce which is a function of the height of
the top of the building above the
displacement level and the distance to the
shore line.
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 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
(Contd….)
8. For each sector, determine the distance to
the edge of town (if the building is in town).
9. For each sector, determine a reduction
factor, Ce,T, to account for town terrain, which
is a function of the distance inside the town,
and the height of the building above the
displacement level.
10.For each sector, determine the size factor.
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 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
(Contd….)
11.For each sector, calculate the peak velocity
pressure as:

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 SUMMARY OF CALCULATION STEPS
USING EN1991-1-4 AND BS6399-2
EN1991-1-4 Procedure BS6399-2 Procedure

1. Read Vb,map from map, 1. Read Vb from map

adjust for altitude 2. Vs = Vb Ss Sd Sa Sp
2. vb = cdir cseason cprob vb,0 3. Ve = Vs Sb
3. qb = 1/2 ρ vb2 4. qs = 1/2 ρ Ve2
qp = ce,flat(z) qb
p = qs Cpe Ca
4.
5.

5. We = qp(z) cpe
6. P = 0.85 (Σ Pfront - Σ
6. Fw = cscd Σ W Aref Prear ) (1 + Cr) 36
 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
(Contd….)
12.Determine whether orography is potentially
“significant” within 5km of the site.

13.For each sector, determine the geometry of

the orographic feature, classifying it as either a
ridge or escarpment.

14.For each sector, derive the orographic location

factor, S, based on graphs or algebraic
expressions. 37
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 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
(Contd….)
15.For each sector, calculate the orographic
factor C0, based on S obtained above.
16.For each sector, recalculate the altitude
factor for orographic base level.
17.For each sector calculate the “orographic”
peak velocity pressure qp for comparison
with non-orographic qp from stage 11.
18.For each sector, determine the size factor, Cs
based on the size zone factor and the sum
breadth and height of the building. 39
 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
(Contd….)
19.For each principle direction, determine the
dynamic factor Cd, which is a function of the
plan dimensions of the building and the
frame type.
20.Consolidate sectors into 90o quadrants
centred on the faces of the building.
21.Calculate the force acting on the building,
quadrant by quadrant, as per the equation
provided in the code………….:
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 BS EN 1991-1-1-1:2002
(Contd….)
22.Consider whether friction is significant and
calculate the frictional force (where
significant) as per the provided equation……:

23.For each quadrant, calculate the overall

force, which is the sum of Fw and Ffr.

24.For each of two orthogonal directions, quote

the overall force as a  value.
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 COMPARISON OF THE TWO
CODES
• The two methods are largely similar in the
following ways:
Both the Eurocode and the British Standards
consider the same factors in the derivation of the
wind loading, but they do so through different
coefficients.

The following Table lists the coefficients used in

the two codes according to the corresponding
roles.
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 COMPARISON OF COEFFICIENTS
 Coefficient BS 6399-2-1997 EN 1991-1-1-1-
1:2005
Dynamic effects Cr Cd
Altitude Sa Calt
Wind direction Sd Cdir
Temporary Ss -
structures
Probability Sp -
Effective height of Sb Ce, Ce,T
building, terrain,
distance to sea
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 SIMILARITIES OF THE CODES
• The work flow in both EN 1991-1:2005 and BS
6399-2-1997 is similar in that in both of the
codes, the following are the key steps:
Step1: obtain a basic wind speed from a wind
map;
Step 2: modify the basic wind speed to get a
dynamic pressure;
Step 3: apply external and internal pressure
coefficients to the calculated dynamic pressure;
 Step 4: Obtain the overall force acting on the
building. 48
 DIFFERENCES OF THE CODES
• EN 1991-1:2005 uses equations whereas BS
6399-2-1997 uses Tables (this is the specific
instance of a pattern that is present in all the
comparisons between any Eurocode and its
corresponding British Standard).

• EN 1991-1:2005 procedure is more detailed

than the BS 6399-2-1997 procedure in
obtaining some of the factors, for example, the
orographic factor (which in BS is done when
getting altitude factor Sa). 49
DIFFERENCES OF CODES (Contd....)

• The BS formally lays out two different

procedures for directional and non-directional
wind load calculations.

• The Eurocode lays out only the procedure for

directional calculations, but allows it to be
used for non-directional calculations.

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 EXCERISE 1 (a): FILL THE TABLE
BELOW:
Reference Eurocode Function BS ACI
Equivalent Equivalent

EN 1991 Eurocode 1 Actions on    

structures    
Live loads BS 6399:1 ?
BS EN 1991-1:2002 Eurocode 1 General BS 6399:2 ?
loading
including
wind loads
BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Eurocode 1 Details of BS 6399:2 ?
design for
wind loading

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EXCERISE 1 (b): DO AN ANALYSIS
OF THE INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE
BASED ON:

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