Design of Mechanical

Systems
ME - 6007

Dr. Sujeet Kumar Mishra

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology
(A Deemed University)
Mesra, Ranchi – 835 215 India

E-mail: [email protected]
Spur Gears

 In case of spur gears, the teeth are cut parallel to the

axis of the shaft. As the teeth are parallel to the axis of
the shaft, spur gears are used only when the shafts are
parallel.
 The profile of the gear tooth is in the shape of an
involute curve and it remains identical along the entire
width of the gear wheel.
 SELECTION OF TYPE OF GEARS
The first step in the design of the gear drive is the selection of a
proper type of gear for a given application.
The factors that are considered for deciding the type of gear are
general layout of shafts, speed reduction, power to be transmitted,
input speed and cost.

• Spur and helical gears are used when the shafts are parallel.
• When the shafts intersect at right angles, bevel gears are used.
• Worm gears are recommended when the axes of shafts are
perpendicular and non-intersecting.
• When the axes of two shafts are neither perpendicular not
intersecting, crossed helical gears are employed.

The speed reduction or velocity ratio for a single pair of spur or helical gears
is normally taken as 6 : 1. On rare occasions, this can be raised to 10 : 1.
When the velocity ratio increases, the size of the gear wheel increases. This
results in increase in the size of the gearbox and the material cost increases.

For high speed reduction, two-stage or three-stage constructions are used.

The normal velocity ratio
for a pair of bevel gears is 1 : 1, which can be increased to 3: 1 under certain
circumstances. For high speed reduction, worm gears offer the best choice.
LAW OF GEARING
The fundamental law of gearing states “The common normal to the tooth
profile at the point of contact should always pass through a fixed point,
called the pitch point, in order to obtain a constant velocity ratio”.
It has been found that only involute and cycloidal curves satisfy the
fundamental law of gearing.

The meaning of these curves is as follows:

(i) An involute is a curve traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without
slipping on a circle.
(ii) A cycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a
generating circle as it rolls without slipping along the inside and outside
of another circle. The cycloid profile consists of two curves, namely,
epicycloid and hypocycloid.
An epicycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a
generating circle as it rolls without slipping on the outside of the pitch
circle.
A hypocycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a
generating circle as it rolls without slipping on the inside of the pitch circle.

Cycloidal tooth offers the following advantages compared with involute

tooth:
(i) In case of cycloidal gears, a convex flank on one tooth comes in contact
with the concave flank of the mating tooth. This increases the contact area
and also the wear strength.
In involute gears, the contact is between two convex surfaces on mating
teeth, resulting in smaller contact area and lower wear strength.
(ii) The phenomenon of interference does not occur at all in cycloidal gears.
TERMINOLOGY OF SPUR GEARS
(i) Pinion: A pinion is the smaller of the two mating gears.

(ii) Gear: A gear is the larger of the two mating gears.

(iii) Velocity Ratio: Velocity ratio is the ratio of angular velocity of the
driving gear to the angular velocity of the driven gear. It is also called
the speed ratio.

(iv) Transmission Ratio (i’) The transmission ratio (i’) is the ratio of the
angular speed of the first driving gear to the angular speed of the last
driven gear in a gear train.

(v) Pitch Surface: The pitch surfaces of the gears are imaginary planes,
cylinders or cones that roll together without slipping.
(vi) Pitch Circle: The pitch circle is the curve of intersection of the pitch
surface of revolution and the plane of rotation. It is an imaginary circle that
rolls without slipping with the pitch circle of a mating gear. The pitch circles
of a pair of mating gears are tangent to each other.
(vii) Pitch Circle Diameter: The pitch circle diameter is the diameter of the
pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually specifi ed by the pitch circle
diameter. It is also called pitch diameter. The pitch circle diameter is
denoted by d
(viii) Pitch Point The pitch point is a point on the line of centres of two gears
at which two pitch circles of mating gears are tangent to each other.
(ix) Topland: The top land is the surface of the top of the gear tooth.
(x) Bottom land: The bottom land is the surface of the gear between the
flanks of adjacent teeth.
(xi) Involute: An involute is a curve traced by a point on a line as the line
rolls without slipping on a circle.
(xii) Base Circle The base circle is an imaginary circle from which the
involute curve of the tooth profile is generated. The base circles of two
mating gears are tangent to the pressure line.
(xiii) Addendum Circle: The addendum circle is an imaginary circle that
borders the tops of gear teeth in the cross section.
(xiv) Addendum (ha): The addendum (ha) is the radial distance between the
pitch and the addendum circles. Addendum indicates the height of the tooth
above the pitch circle.
(xv) Dedendum Circle: The dedendum circle is an imaginary circle that
borders the bottom of spaces between teeth in the cross section. It is also
called root circle.
(xvi) Dedendum (hf): The dedendum (hf) is the radial distance between pitch
and the dedendum circles. The dedendum indicates the depth of the tooth
below the pitch circle.
(xvii) Clearance (c): The clearance is the amount by which the dedendum of
a given gear exceeds the addendum of its mating tooth.
(xviii) Face of Tooth The surface of the gear tooth between the pitch cylinder
and the addendum cylinder is called the face of tooth.
(xix) Flank of Tooth The surface of the gear tooth between the pitch cylinder
and the root cylinder is called flank of the tooth.
(xx) Face Width (b): Face width is the width of the tooth measured parallel
to the axis.
(xxi) Fillet Radius: The radius that connects the root circle to the profile of
the tooth is called fillet radius.
(xxii) Circular Tooth Thickness: The length of the arc on the pitch circle
subtending a single gear tooth is called circular tooth thickness.
Theoretically, circular tooth thickness is half of the circular pitch.
(xxiii) Tooth Space: The width of the space between two adjacent teeth
(xxv) Whole Depth (h): The whole depth is the total depth of the tooth space,
that is, the sum of the addendum and dedendum. Whole depth is also equal
to working depth plus clearance.
(xxvi) Centre Distance: The centre distance is the distance between centres
of pitch circles of mating gears. It is also the distance between centres of
base circles of mating gears.
(xxvii) Pressure Angle: The pressure angle is the angle which the line of
action makes with the common tangent to the pitch circles. The pressure
angle is also called the angle of obliquity. It is denoted by alpha.

(xxxii) Contact Ratio (mp): The number of pairs of teeth that are
simultaneously engaged is called contact ratio. If there are two pairs of
teeth in contact all the time, the contact ratio is 2. As the two gears rotate,
smooth and continuous transfer of power from one pair of meshing teeth to
the following pair is achieved when the contact of the first pair continues
until the following pair has established contact. Some overlapping is
(xxxiii) Circular Pitch: The circular pitch (p) is the distance measured along
the pitch circle between two similar pointswhere
on adjacent teeth.
z is the Therefore,
number of teeth.

(xxxiv) Diametral Pitch: The diametral pitch (P) is the ratio of the number
of teeth to the pitch circle diameter. Therefore,
So,
(xxxv) Module: The module (m) is defined as the inverse of the diametral
pitch. Therefore,

The centre to centre distance between two gears having zp and zg teeth is
given by

where,
a = centre to centre distance (mm)
zp = number of teeth on pinion
zg = number of teeth on gear
The gear ratio (i) that is, the ratio of the number of teeth on gear to that on
pinion is given by,

where np = speed of pinion (rpm)

ng = speed of gear (rpm)
 STANDARD SYSTEMS OF GEAR TOOTH
There are three standard systems for the shape of gear teeth. They are as
follows:
(i) 14.5° full depth involute system: The basic rack for this system is composed
of straight sides except for the fillet arcs. In this system, interference
occurs when the number of teeth on the pinion is less than 23. This system
is satisfactory when the number of teeth on the gears is large. If the
number of teeth is small and if the gears are made by generating process,
undercutting is unavoidable.

(ii) 20° full depth involute systems: The basic rack for this system is also
composed of straight sides
except for the fi llet arcs. In this system, interference occurs when the number
of teeth on the pinion is
less than 17. The 20° pressure angle system with full depth involute teeth is
widely used in practice.

(iii) 20° stub involute system: The gears in this system have shorter addendum
and shorter dedendum. The interfering portion of the tooth, that is, a part
of the addendum, is thus removed.
Therefore, these teeth have still smaller interference. This also, reduces the
undercutting. In this system,
the minimum number of teeth on the pinion, to avoid interference, is 14. Since
the pinion is small, the
Increasing pressure angle improves the tooth strength but shortens the
duration of contact.
Decreasing pressure angle requires more number of teeth on the pinion to
avoid undercutting. The 20° pressure angle is a good compromise for most
of the power transmission as well as precision gearboxes.
The 20° pressure angle system has the following advantages over the 14.5°
pressure angle system:

(a) It reduces the risk of undercutting.

(b) It reduces interference.
(c) Due to the increased pressure angle, the tooth becomes slightly broader
at the root. This makes the tooth stronger and increases the load carrying
capacity.
(d) It has greater length of contact.

The main advantage of the 14.5° pressure angle system is its quietness of
operation.
INTERFERENCE AND UNDERCUTTING
A gear tooth has involute profile only outside the base circle. In fact, the
involute profile begins at
the base circle. In some cases, the dedendum is so large that it extends
below this base circle. In
such situations, the portion of the tooth below the base circle is not involute.
The tip of the tooth on
the mating gear, which is involute, interferes with this non-involute portion
of the dedendum. This
phenomenon of tooth profiles overlapping and cutting into each other is
called
When ‘interference’.
the gears are generated by involute rack cutters, this interference is
automatically eliminated
In this case,
because the the tip of
cutting theremoves
tool tooth overlaps and digsportion
the interfering into theofroot
the section of its
flank. This is
mating gear. Interference is non-conjugate action and results in excessive
called ‘undercutting’.
wear, vibrations
Undercutting and jamming.
solves the problem of interference. However, an undercut
tooth is considerably weaker. Undercutting not only weakens the tooth, but
also removes a small involute portion adjacent to the base circle. This loss of
involute
The profile
following may cause
methods can aeliminate
serious reduction in the length of the contact.
interference:
(i) Increase the Number of Teeth on the Pinion
(ii)Increase Pressure Angle
(iii) Use Long and Short Addendum Gearing
BACKLASH
It is the amount by which the width of tooth space exceeds the thickness of
the engaging tooth measured along the pitch circle.

The objectives for providing backlash are as follows:

(i) Backlash prevents the mating teeth from jamming
together. The mating teeth do not make contact on both
sides simultaneously. This makes the teeth roll together
freely
and smoothly.
(ii) Backlash compensates for machining errors.
(iii) Backlash compensates for thermal expansion of
There are two methods to provide backlash. They are as follows:
teeth.
(i) The teeth of the gear are cut slightly thinner. This is obtained by setting
the cutting tool
deeper into the blank resulting in thinner tooth and wider space.
(ii) The centre distance between mating gears is slightly increased.

The magnitude of recommended backlash depends upon the diametral pitch

or module and the centre distance.
FORCE ANALYSIS
In gears, power is transmitted by means of a force exerted by the tooth of
the driving gear on the meshing tooth of the driven gear. Figure shows the
tooth of the driving pinion exerting a force
PN on the tooth of the driven gear. According to the fundamental law of
gearing, this resultant force PN always acts along the pressure line. The
resultant force PN can be resolved into two components - tangential
component Pt and radial component Pr at the pitch
point as shown in Figure.

The tangential component Pt is a useful load because it determines

the magnitude of the torque and consequently the power, which is
transmitted.
The radial
component Pr is a
separating force,
which is always
directed towards
the centre of the
gear.
The torque transmitted by the gears is given by,
where,
Mt = torque transmitted by gears (N-mm)
kW = power transmitted by gears (kW)
n = speed of rotation (rpm)
The tangential component Pt acts at the pitch circle radius. Therefore,

The above analysis of the gear tooth force is based on the following
assumptions:

(i) As the point of contact moves, the magnitude of the resultant force PN
changes. This effect is neglected in the above analysis.
(ii) It is assumed that only one pair of teeth takes the entire load. At times
there are two pairs,
which are simultaneously in contact and share the load. This aspect is
neglected in the analysis.
(iii) The analysis is valid under static conditions, i.e., when the gears are
GEAR TOOTH FAILURES
There are two basic modes of gear tooth failure - breakage of the tooth due
to static and dynamic
loads and the surface destruction.

The principal types of gear tooth wear are as follows:

(i) Abrasive Wear

(ii)Corrosive Wear
(iii) Initial Pitting
(iv) Destructive Pitting
(v)Scoring
SELECTION OF MATERIAL

Gears are made of cast iron, steel, bronze and phenolic resins.

Large size gears are made of grey cast iron of Grades FG 200, FG 260 or FG
350. They are cheap and generate less noise compared with steel gears.
They have good wear resistance. Their main drawback is poor strength.

Case-hardened steel gears offer the best combination of a wear resisting

hard surface together with a ductile and shock- absorbing core.

The plain carbon steels used for medium duty applications are 50C8, 45C8,
50C4 and 55C8.

For heavy duty applications, alloy steels 4OCrl, 30Ni4Cr1 and

4ONi3Cr65Mo55 are used.

For planetary gear trains, alloy steel 35NilCr60 is recommended.

Although steel gears are costly, they have higher load carrying capacity.

Bronze is mainly used for worm wheels due to its low coefficient of friction
and excellent conformability. It is also suitable where resistance to corrosion
is an important consideration in applications like water pumps. Their main
drawback is excessive cost.
NUMBER OF TEETH
In the design of gears, it is required to decide the number of teeth on the
pinion and gear.
There is a limiting value of the minimum number of teeth on the pinion.
As the number of teeth decreases, a point is reached when there is
interference and the standard tooth profile requires modification.
The minimum number of teeth to avoid interference is given by,

In practice, giving a slight radius to the tip of tooth can further reduce the
value of z min. Theoretical and practical values of the minimum number of
teeth on the pinion are as follows:

For the 20° full-depth involute tooth system, it is always safe to assume the
number of teeth on
the pinion as 18 or 20.
This does not require any modification in the profile.
Once the number of teeth on the pinion is decided, the number of teeth on
the gear is calculated by the velocity ratio (i = zg /zp).
FACE WIDTH
In the design of gears, it is required to express the face width in terms of
the module.

In the Lewis equation, it is assumed that the tangential force Pt is uniformly

distributed over the entire face width.

If the face width is too large, there is a possibility of concentration of load at

one end of the gear tooth due to a number of factors, like misalignment,
elastic deformation of shafts, and warping of gear tooth.

On the other hand, gears with a small face width have a poor capacity to
resist the shock and absorb
vibrations. They also wear at a faster rate. A narrow face width results in a
coarse pitch.

In practice, the optimum range of the face width is

(8 m) < b < (12 m)

In the preliminary stages of gear design, the face width is assumed as ten
times of module.
BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
Lewis equation is considered as the basic equation in the design of gears.
In the Lewis analysis, the gear tooth is treated as a cantilever beam as
shown in Fig. below.
The tangential component (Pt) causes the bending moment about the base
of the tooth.

The Lewis equation is based on the following assumptions:

(i) The effect of the radial component (Pr), which induces compressive
stresses, is neglected.
(ii) It is assumed that the tangential component (Pt) is uniformly distributed
over the face width of the gear. This is possible when the gears are rigid and
accurately machined.
(iii)
It is The effect that
observed of stress concentration
the cross-section ofis neglected.
the tooth varies from
(iv) It is assumed
the free end to thethat at end.
fixed any time, only one pair of teeth is in contact and
takes
Therefore, a parabola is constructed within the tooth
the total
profile andload.
shown by a dotted line in Fig.2
The advantage of parabolic outline is that it is a beam of
uniform strength. For this beam, the stress at any cross-
section is uniform or same.
The weakest section of the gear tooth is at the section XX,
where the parabola is tangent to the tooth profile.
In the above equation, Y is called the Lewis
form factor.
Equation gives the relationship between the
tangential force (Pt) and the corresponding
stress sb.

When the tangential force is increased, the

stress also increases. When the stress reaches
the permissible magnitude of bending stresses,
the corresponding force (Pt) is called the beam
strength.

Therefore, the beam strength (Sb) is the

maximum value of the tangential force that the
tooth can transmit without bending failure.
Replacing (Pt) by (Sb), Eq. is modified in the
following way:

Sb = mb σb Y
where, Sb = beam strength of gear tooth (N)
σb = permissible bending stress
(N/mm2)
In order to avoid the breakage of gear Values of the Lewis form factor Y fo
tooth due to bending, the beam 20° full-depth involute system
strength should be more than the
effective force between the meshing
teeth.

Therefore,
In the
Sb design of gears, it is required to decide the
≥ Peff
weaker between the pinion and gear.

Rewriting the Lewis equation,

Sb = mb σb Y

It is observed that m and b are same for pinion as

well as for gear.

When different materials are used, the product (sb Y) decides the weaker
between pinion and gear. The Lewis form factor Y is always less for a pinion
compared with gear.
When the same material is used for the pinion and gear, the pinion is always
weaker than the gear.
EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
The component is calculated by using the following two equations:

The value of the tangential component, therefore, depends upon the rated
power and rated speed.
In practical applications, the torque developed by the source of power varies
during the work cycle.

The service factor Cs is defined as

where (Pt) is the tangential force due to rated torque (Mt). Rearranging the
terms,
There are two methods to account for the dynamic load - approximate
estimation by the velocity factor in the preliminary stages of gear design
and precise calculation by Buckingham’s equation in the final stages of gear
design.

It is difficult to calculate the exact magnitude of dynamic load in the

preliminary stages of gear
design. To overcome this difficulty, a velocity
In the factor
final stages of Cv developed
gear by Barth
design, when gear
is used. dimensions are known, errors specified and
The values of the velocity factor are
the as follows:
quality of gears determined, the dynamic
load is calculated by equations derived by
Buckingham.

The effective load is given by,

The values of k for various tooth
forms are as
follows:
k = 0.107 (for 14.5° full depth teeth)
k = 0.111 (for 20° full depth teeth)
 The error e is given by, e = ep + eg
where,
ep = error for pinion
eg = error for gear
The error depends upon the quality of
the gear
and the method of manufacture. There
are twelve
different grades from Gr. 1 to Gr. 12 in
decreasing
order of precision. The expected error
on the gear
tooth is considered to be equal to
tolerance.

These tolerances are calculated by

using the following basic equation:
ESTIMATION OF MODULE BASED ON BEAM STRENGTH
In order to avoid failure of gear tooth due to bending, Sb > Peff
WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
The failure of the gear tooth due to pitting occurs when the contact stresses
between two meshing teeth exceed the surface endurance strength of the
material.
In order to avoid this type of failure, the proportions of the gear tooth and
surface properties, such as surface hardness, should be selected in such a
way that the wear strength of the gear tooth is more
than the effective
Buckingham’s load between
equation is basedthe
on meshing teeth.
Hertz theory
of contact stresses.
When two cylinders are pressed
together as shown in Fig. , the contact
stress is given by,
Due to deformation under the action of load P, a rectangular surface of
width (2b) and length (l)
is formed between the two cylinders. The elliptical stress distribution across
the width (2b) is shown in Fig. (b) and (c).
Substituting Eq. (b) in Eq. (a) and squaring both sides,

The above equation of the contact stress is based on the following

assumptions:
(i) The cylinders are made of isotropic materials.
(ii) The elastic limit of the material is not exceeded.
(iii) The dimensions r1, r2 are very largewhen compared to the width (2b) of
the deformation.
Figure shows the contact between two meshing
teeth at the pitch point. The radii r1 and r2 in Eq.
(d) are to be replaced by the radii of curvature at
the pitch point. Therefore,
 Therefore, the wear strength is the
maximum value of the tangential
force that the tooth can transmit
without pitting
Replacing (Pt) by (Sw), Eq. (m) is
failure. as,
written
where,
Sw = wear strength of the gear tooth
(N)
Above Equation is known as
Buckingham’s equation for wear.
The ratio factor for internal gears is
defined as,

Substituting the above equation in

Eq. (l),
This equation gives a relationship
between
the tangential force Pt and the
When the tangential force is
corresponding
increased, the contact stress also
contact stress.
increases.
Pitting occurs when the contact stress
reaches the magnitude of the surface
ESTIMATION OF MODULE BASED ON WEAR
STRENGTH
In order to avoid failure of gear tooth due to pitting, Sw > Peff
Introducing a factor of safety,
Sw = Peff (fs) (a)
The recommended factor of safety is from 1.5 to 2.
The effective load is given by,
17.7Q. Design a pair of spur gears with 20° full-depth involute teeth based
on the Lewis equation. The velocity factor is to be used to account for
dynamic load. The pinion shaft is connected to a 10 kW, 1440 rpm motor.
The starting
torque of the motor is 150% of the rated torque. The speed reduction is 4 :
1. The pinion as well as the gear is made of plain carbon steel 40C8 (Sut =
600 N/mm2). The factor of safety can be taken as 1.5. Specify their
dimensions and suggest suitable surface hardness for the gears.

17.9Q. A pair of spur gears with 20° full-depth involute teeth consists of a 19
teeth pinion meshing with a 40 teeth gear. The pinion is mounted on a
crankshaft of 7.5 kW single cylinder diesel engine running at 1500 rpm. The
driven shaft is connected to a two-stage compressor. Assume the service
factor as 1.5. The pinion as well as the gear is made of steel 40C8 (Sut =
600 N/mm2). The module and face width of the gears are 4 and 40 mm
respectively.
17.11Q.
(i) UsingIttheis required to design
velocity factor a spur gear
to account speed
for the reducer
dynamic fordetermine
load, a compressor
the
running
factor ofatsafety.
250 rpm driven by a 7.5 kW, 1000 rpm electric motor. The centre
distance
(ii) If thebetween
factor ofthe axesisof
safety twothefor
gear shafts
pitting should
failure, be exactly surface
recommend 250 mm. The
starting
hardness torque
for the ofgears.
the motor can be assumed to be 150% of the rated torque.
The
(iii) gears are made
If the gears are of carbon steel
machined 50C4
to meet the(Sut = 700 N/mm2).
specifications The 8,
of Grade pressure
angle is 20°.
determine The
the factor
factor of of safety
safety forisbending
2 for preliminary design based
using Buckingham’s on the for
equation
use of velocity
dynamic load. factor.
(i)
(iv)Design
Is the the
gear gears and
design specify theirIfdimensions.
satisfactory? not, what is (ii)
theAssume
methodthat the gears
to satisfy the
are manufactured
design conditions?toHow meet theyou
will requirements of Grade 6 and calculate the
modify the design?
17.12Q. Design a pair of spur gears with 20° full-depth involute teeth. The
input shaft rotates at 720 rpm and receives 5 kW power through a flexible
coupling. The speed of the output shaft should be 144 rpm. The pinion as
well as the gear are made of steel Fe 410 (Sut = 410 N/mm2). The service
factor for the application is 1.25. The gears are machined to meet the
specifications of Grade 6.
(i) Assume suitable number of teeth for the pinion and the gear.
(ii) For preliminary calculations, assume the pitch line velocity as 5 m/s and
the factor of safety as 2. Estimate the module and select the first preference
value of the module.
(iii) Using this value of the module, calculate the pitch circle diameters of
the pinion and gear and the face width.
(iv) Determine static load and the dynamic load by Buckingham’s equation.
Also, calculate the beam strength and the correct value of factor of safety
based on beam strength.
(v) Using a factor of safety of 2 for wear strength, specify the surface
hardness for gears.
Helical Gear
There is a basic difference between spur and helical gears.

While the teeth of spur gears are cut parallel to the axis of the shaft, the
teeth of helical gears are cut in the form of a helix on the pitch cylinder.

In spur gears, the contact between meshing teeth occurs along the entire
face width of the tooth, resulting in sudden application of the load, which in
turn, results in impact conditions and generates noise in high speed
applications.

In helical gears, the contact between meshing teeth begins with a point on
the leading edge of the tooth and gradually extends along the diagonal line
across the tooth. There is a gradual pick-up of load by the tooth, resulting in
smooth engagement and quiet operation even at high speeds.

Helical gears are used in automobiles, turbines and highspeed applications

even up to 3000 m/min.

There are two basic types of helical gears, parallel and crossed.

Parallel helical gears operate on two parallel shafts. In this case, the
magnitude of the helix angle is the same for the pinion and the gear,
however, the hand of the helix is opposite. A righthand pinion meshes with a
A portion of the top view of a parallel
helical gear is shown in Fig.
A1B1 and A2B2 are centre lines of the
adjacent teeth taken on the pitch plane.
The angle A1B2A2 is the helix angle y.

It is defined as the angle between the axis

of the shaft and the centre line of the tooth
taken on the pitch plane.

XX is the plane of rotation, while YY is a

plane perpendicular to the tooth elements.

The distance A1A2 is called the transverse

circular pitch (p), which is measured in the
plane of rotation.
The distance AC 1 is called the normal
circular pitch (pn),which is measured in a
plane perpendicular to the tooth elements.
VIRTUAL NUMBER OF TEETH
The pitch cylinder of the helical gear
is cut by the plane A–A, which is
normal to the tooth elements as
shown in Fig.
The intersection of the plane A–A and
the pitch cylinder (extended)
produces an ellipse.
This ellipse is shown by a dotted line.
The semi-major and semi-minor axes
of this ellipse
It can be proved from analytical
geometry that the radius of
curvature r’ at the point B is given
by,
where a and b are semi-major and
semi-minor axes respectively.
Substituting the values of a and b in
the expression for r’,
In the design of helical gears, an
imaginary spur
gear is considered in the plane A–A The number of teeth z’ on this
with centre at O’ having a pitch imaginary spur gear is called the
circle radius of r’ and module mn. It virtual number of teeth and given by
is called a ‘formative’ or ‘virtual’
TOOTH PROPORTIONS
In helical gears, the normal module mn should be selected from standard
values. The first preference
values of the normal module are
mn (in mm) = 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10

The standard proportions of the addendum and the dedendum are,

addendum (ha) = mn
dedendum (hf) = 1.25 mn
clearance (c) = 0.25 mn

Q. A pair of parallel helical gears consis

of a 20 teeth
pinion meshing with a 40 teeth gear. Th
helix angle is 25°
and the normal pressure angle is 20°. T
normal module
he minimum face width is 3 mm. Calculate
(i) the transverse module;
(ii) the transverse pressure angle;
(iii) the axial pitch;
(iv) the pitch circle diameters of the
FORCE ANALYSIS
The resultant force P acting on the tooth of
a helical gear is resolved into three
components, Pt, Pr and Pa as shown in Fig.,
where
Pt = tangential component (N)
Pr = radial component (N)
Pa = axial or thrust component (N)

The normal pressure angle αn is in the plane

ABC shaded by dots, while helix angle ψ is
in the lower plane BCD

From the triangle ABC,

Pr = P sin αn
BC = P cos αn

From the triangle BDC,

Pa = BC sin ψ = P cos αn sin ψ
Pt = BC cos ψ = P cos αn cos ψ The magnitudes are determined by
using the following four equations,
The tangential component is
calculated from the
relationship
BEAM STRENGTH OF HELICAL GEARS
In order to determine beam strength, the helical gear is considered to be
equivalent to a formative
spur gear.
The formative gear is an imaginary spur gear in a plane perpendicular to the
tooth element.
The pitch circle diameter of this gear is d’, the number of teeth is z’ and the
module mn.

The beam strength of the spur gear is given by, Sb = m b σb Y

On substituting these values
This equation is also applicable to the formative spur gear.

Above eq. is known as Lewis

Equation for
Sb = (Sb)n = beam strength helical gears.
perpendicular to the In this equation, the form factor Y
tooth element based
m = mn = normal module on the virtual number of teeth.
Y = Lewis form factor based on
FFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
A method to determine the tangential component of the resultant force
between two meshing teeth of helical gears is discussed. The component is
calculated by using the following two equations:

In the preliminary stages, the effective load Peff between two meshing
teeth is given by,

he dynamic load is given by,

e effective load is given by,

In order to avoid failure of gear tooth due to bending,

WEAR STRENGTH OF HELICAL
GEARS
The wear strength equation of the spur gear is modified to suit helical gears.
The wear strength of the spur gear is given by

Above Equation is known as Buckingham’s equation of wear strength.

Equation gives wear strength in the plane of rotation.
Therefore, wear strength (Sw) indicates the maximum tangential force that
Q 18.5 The following data is given for a pair of parallel helical gears made
of steel:
power transmitted = 20 kW, speed of pinion = 720 rpm, number of teeth on
pinion = 35, number of teeth on gear = 70, centre distance = 285 mm,
normal module = 5 mm, face width = 50 mm, normal pressure angle = 20°,
ultimate tensile strength = 600 N/mm2, surface hardness = 300 BHN, grade
of machining = Gr. 6, service factor = 1.25

Calculate
(i) the helix angle; (ii) the beam strength; (iii) the wear strength; (iv) the
static load; (v) the dynamic load by Buckingham’s equation; (vi) the effective
load; (vii) the effective factor of safety against bending failure; and (viii) the
effective factor of safety against pitting failure.
Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are used to transmit power between two intersecting shafts.
There are two common types of bevel gears—straight and spiral, as shown
in Fig.
The elements of the teeth of the straight bevel gears
are straight lines, which converge into a common
apex point.

The elements of the teeth of the spiral bevel gears

are spiral
curves, which also converge into a common apex
point.
However, they create noise at high-speed conditions.
Straight bevel gears are easy to design and
manufacture and give reasonably good service when
Spiral bevel gears, on the other hand, are difficult to design and costly to
properly mounted on shafts.
manufacture, for they require specialized and sophisticated machinery for
their manufacture.
Spiral bevel gears have smooth teeth engagement, which results in quiet
operation, even at high speeds. They have better strength and are thus used
for high speed–high
In some cases, bevelpower
gears transmission.
are classified on the basis of pitch angle. Three
types of bevel gears that
are based on pitch angle are as follows:
(i) When the pitch angle is less than 90°, it is called external bevel gear.
(ii) When the pitch angle is equal to 90°, it is called crown bevel gear.
ERMINOLOGY OF BEVEL GEARS
A bevel gear is in the form of the frustum of a
cone. The dimensions of a bevel gear are
illustrated in Fig. (a) and (b).
ThePitch
(i) following terms
Cone :It is anare important in terminology
of bevel gears:
imaginary cone, the surface of
which contains the pitch lines of
all teeth in the bevel gear.
(ii) Cone Centre: The apex of
the pitch cone is called the cone
centre. It is (vii) Face Angle: It is the
denoted by O. angle subtended by the
(iii) Cone Distance: It is the face of the tooth at the
length of the pitch-cone element. cone centre.
It is also called pitch-cone Face angle = pitch angle +
radius. It is denoted by A0. addendum angle = γ + α.
(iv) Pitch Angle: The angle that (viii) Root Angle: It is the
the pitch line makes with the angle subtended by the
axis of the gear, is called the root of the tooth at the
pitch angle. It is denoted by γ. cone centre. Root angle =
The pitch angle is also called pitch angle – dedendum
centre angle. angle = γ - δ.
(v) Addendum Angle It is the (ix) Back Cone : It is an
angle subtended by the imaginary cone and its
addendum at the cone centre. It elements are perpendicular
is denoted by α. to the elements of the pitch
(vi) Dedendum Angle: It is the cone.
e formative number of teeth is given by,

where m is the module at the large end of the tooth, rb is the pitch circle
radius of this imaginary spur gear.

FORCE ANALYSIS
EAM STRENGTH OF BEVEL GEARS

The face width of the bevel gear is limited to one-third of the cone distance.
Therefore, the last
term in the bracket will never be more than (1/27).
Neglecting the last term, is known as the Lewis equation for
bevel gears.

In the above analysis, the beam

strength
(Sb) is determined using the pit
radius
R at the large end of the tooth
(Sb = Mt /R).

Therefore, the beam strength indicates the maximum value of the tangential
force at the large end of the tooth
that the tooth can transmit without bending failure.

The face width of the bevel gear is generally taken as 10 m or (Ao/3),

whichever is smaller, i.e.,
WEAR STRENGTH OF BEVEL GEARS
The contact between two meshing teeth of straight bevel gears is a line
contact, which is similar to that of spur gears.
In order to determine the wear strength, the bevel gear is considered to be
equivalent to a formative spur gear in a plane which is perpendicular to the
tooth at the large end.

Applying Buckingham’s equation to these formative gears,

The pitch circle diameter of the formative

pinion is given by

In case of bevel gears, either the pinion or the gear is generally

overhanging.
It is subjected to deflection under the action of tooth forces and it has been
found that to transmit the load, only three
is known quarters of the
as Buckingham’s face width
equation is
for the
effective. wear strength of bevel gears.

When the pinion as well as the gear is made of steel and the pressure angle
is 20° the value of K is
given by
EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
The effective load Peff between two meshing teeth is given by,
The equation for dynamic load in bevel gears is as follows,

The method used to calculate the error e

between two meshing teeth in chapters
17 and 18 is limited to spur and helical
gears.
For bevel gears, such precise information
is difficult
In practice,toitget.
is necessary to contact the manufacturer
and find out the expected error between meshing teeth.

In the absence of such information. Table may be used

to get the values of error e.

The classes of gears mentioned in the table indicate the

following manufacturing methods,
Class-1 Well cut commercial gear
teeth
Class-2 Gear teeth cut with great
care
Class-3 Ground and lapped precision
Q. A pair of straight bevel gears is mounted on shafts, which are
intersecting at right angles. The number of teeth on the pinion and gear are
21 and 28 respectively. The pressure angle is 20°. The pinion shaft is
connected to an electric motor developing 5 kW rated power at 1440 rpm.
The service factor can be taken as 1.5. The pinion and the gear are made of
steel (Sut = 750 N/mm2) and heat-treated to a surface hardness of 380
BHN. The gears are machined by a manufacturing process, which limits the
error between the meshing teeth to 10 mm. The module and face width are
4 mm and 20 mm respectively. Determine the factor of safety against
bending as well as against pitting failure.

Q. A pair of straight bevel gears consists of a 24-teeth pinion meshing with a

48 teeth gear. The module at the outside diameter is 6 mm, while the face
width is 50 mm. The gears are made of grey cast iron FG 220 (Sut = 220
N/mm2). The pressure angle is 20°. The teeth are generated and assume
that velocity factor accounts for the dynamic load. The pinion rotates at 300
rpm and the service factor is 1.5. Calculate (i) the beam strength of the
tooth; (ii) the static load that the gears can transmit with a factor of safety of
2 for bending consideration; and (iii) the rated power that the gears can
transmit.
WORM GEARS
Worm gear drives are used to transmit power between two non-intersecting
shafts, which are, in general, at right angles to each other.

The worm gear drive consists of a worm and a worm wheel.

The worm is a threaded screw, while the worm wheel is a toothed gear. The
teeth on the worm wheel envelope the threads on the worm and give line
contact between mating parts.

Advantages of worm gear drives:

(i) The most important characteristic of worm gear drives is their high
speed reduction. A speed reduction as high as 100 : 1 can be obtained
with a single pair of worm gears.
(ii) The worm gear drives are compact with small overall dimensions,
compared with equivalent spur or helical gear drives having same speed
reduction.
(iii) The operation is smooth and silent.
(iv) Provision can be made for self locking operation, where the motion is
transmitted only from the worm to the worm wheel. This is advantageous
in applications like cranes and lifting devices.

Drawbacks of the worm gear drives:

(v) The efficiency is low compared with other types of gear drives.
(vi)The worm wheel, in general, is made of phosphor bronze, which
ERMINOLOGY OF WORM GEARS
A pair of worm gears is specified and designated by four quantities in the
z1/z2/q/m where, z1 = number of starts on the worm z2 = number of teeth
following manner:
on the worm wheel
q = diametral quotient m = module (mm)
The diametral quotient is given by,
q = d1/m ,where d1 is the pitch diameter of the worm
(i) Axial Pitch: The axial pitch (px) of the worm is
the distance measured from a point on one thread
to the corresponding point on the adjacent thread,
measured along the axis of the worm.
(ii) Lead: The lead (l) of the worm is the distance
that a point on the helical profile will move when
the worm is rotated through one revolution. It is the
thread advance in one turn.
For single-start threads, the lead is equal to the
axial pitch.
For double-start threads, the lead is twice the axial
pitch, and so on. Therefore, l = px z1
(iii) Lead Angle: The lead angle (γ) is the angle between a tangent to the
thread at the pitch diameter and a plane normal to the worm axis.

(iv) Helix Angle: The helix angle (ψ) is the angle between a tangent to the
thread at the pitch diameter and the axis of the worm. The worm helix angle
is the
(v) complement
Pressure Angle:of thetooth
The worm lead angle.
pressure angle (α) is
measured in a plane containing the axis of the worm
and it is equal to one-half of the thread angle. The
pressure angle should not be less than 20° for single
and double start worms and 25° for triple and multi-
start worms.
ROPORTIONS OF WORM GEARS

Similarly, the dimensions of the worm wheel can be expressed. The

addendum and dedendum of the worm wheel are expressed at the throat.
Q. A pair of worm gears is designated as,1/30/10/8 Calculate (i) the centre
distance; (ii) the speed reduction; (iii) the dimensions of the worm; and (iv)
the dimensions of the worm wheel

Q. A pair of worm and worm wheel is designated as 3/60/10/6

The worm is transmitting 5 kW power at 1440 rpm to the worm wheel. The
coefficient of friction is 0.1 and the normal pressure angle is 20°. Determine
the components of the gear tooth force acting on the worm and the worm
wheel.
Q. 1 kW power at 720 rpm is supplied to the worm shaft. The number of
starts for threads of the worm is four with a 50 mm pitch–circle diameter.
The worm wheel has 30 teeth with 5 mm module. The normal pressure angle
is 20°. Calculate the efficiency of the worm gear drive and the power lost in
friction.
FORCE ANALYSIS
The analysis of three components of the resultant tooth force between the
meshing teeth of worm and worm wheel is based on the following
assumptions:
(i) The worm is the driving element, while the worm wheel is the driven
element.
(ii) The worm has right-handed threads.
(iii) The worm rotates in anti-clockwise directions

The three components of the gear tooth force between the worm and the
worm wheel are shown
in Fig. Suffix 1 is used for the worm, while suffix 2 for the worm wheel. The
components of the
resultant force acting on the worm are as follows:
(P1)t = tangential component on the worm (N)
(P1)a = axial component on the worm (N)
(P1)r = radial component on the worm (N)

The components (P2)t, (P2)a and (P2)r acting on the worm wheel are
defined in a similar way.
The force acting on the worm wheel is the equal and opposite reaction of the
force acting on the worm. Therefore,
(P2)t = (P1)a
(P2)a = (P1)t
FRICTION IN WORM GEARS
It has been observed that the coefficient of friction in worm gear drives
depends upon the rubbing speed.
The rubbing speed is the relative velocity between the worm and the wheel.
The velocity triangle is
In this velocity
shown in Fig. triangle,
V1 = pitch line ve1ocity of the worm (m/s)
V2 = pitch line velocity of the worm wheel (m/s)
Vs = rubbing velocity (m/s)

The pitch line velocity of the worm is given by,

The efficiency of the worm gear drive
is given by, A worm gear drive is said to be self
locking if the coefficient of friction is
greater than tangent of lead angle,
i.e., the friction angle is more than
the lead angle.
There is another term, ‘reversible’ or
‘overrunning’
or ‘back-driving’ worm gear drive.
In this type of drive, the worm and
worm wheel can drive each other. In
general, the worm is the driver and
the worm wheel is the driven
member.

If the driven machinery has large

In general, the worm is the driver and
inertia and if the driving power
the worm
supply is cut off suddenly, the worm
wheel is the driven member and the
is freely driven by the worm wheel.
reverse motion is not possible.
This prevents the damage tothe
This is called ‘self-locking’ drive,
drive and source of power.
because the worm wheel cannot drive
A worm-gear drive is said to be
the worm.
reversible if the coefficient of friction
As for screw threads, the criterion for
is less than tangent of lead angle,
self-locking is the relationship
ELECTION OF MATERIALS
The selection of materials for the worm and the worm wheel is more limited
than it is for other types of gears.

The threads of the worm are subjected to fluctuating stresses and the
number of stress cycles is fairly large. Therefore, the surface endurance
strength is an important criterion in the selection of the worm material. The
core of the worm should be kept ductile and tough to ensure maximum
energy absorption.

The worms are, therefore, made of case hardened steel with a surface
hardness of 60 HRC and a case depth of 0.75 to 4.5 mm. The following
varieties of steel are used for the worm:

Normalized carbon steels—40C8, 55C8

Case-hardened carbon steels—10C4, 14C6
Case-hardened alloy steels–16Ni80Cr60, 20Ni2Mo25
Nickel–chromium steels—13Ni3Cr80, 15Ni4Cr1

The worm wheel material should be soft and conformable. Phosphor bronze,
with a surface hardness of 90–120 BHN, is widely used for the worm wheel.
Rolling Contact Bearings
Bearing is a mechanical element that permits relative motion between two
parts, such as the shaft and the housing, with minimum friction. The
functions of the bearing are as follows:

(i) The bearing ensures free rotation of the shaft or the axle with minimum
friction.
(ii) The bearing supports the shaft or the axle and holds it in the correct
position.
(iii) The bearing takes up the forces that act on the shaft or the axle and
transmits them to the frame or the foundation.

The most important criterion to classify the bearings is the type of

friction between the shaft and the bearing surface. On the type of
friction, bearings are classified into two main groups: sliding contact
bearings and rolling contact bearings as shown in Fig.

Sliding contact bearings are also called plain bearings, journal bearings or
sleeve
bearings. In this case, the surface of the shaft slides over the surface
of the bush resulting in friction and wear. In order to reduce the
friction, these two surfaces are separated by a film of lubricating oil.
The bush is made of special bearing material like white metal or
bronze.
TYPES OF ROLLING CONTACT
BEARINGS
Deep Groove Ball Bearing
Cylindrical Roller Bearing
) Angular Contact Bearing
) Self-aligning Bearings
Taper Roller Bearing
) Thrust Ball Bearing
ELECTION OF BEARING-TYPE
(i) For low and medium radial loads, ball bearings are used, whereas for
heavy loads and large
shaft diameters, roller bearings are selected.

(ii) Self-aligning ball bearings and spherical roller bearings are used in
applications where a misalignment between the axes of the shaft and housing
is likely to exist.

(iii) Thrust ball bearings are used for medium thrust loads whereas for heavy
thrust loads, cylindrical roller thrust bearings are recommended. Double
acting thrust bearings can carry the thrust load in either direction.

(iv) Deep groove ball bearings, angular contact bearings and spherical roller
bearings are suitable in applications where the load acting on the bearing
consists of two components— radial and thrust.

(v) The maximum permissible speed of the shaft depends upon the
temperature rise in the bearing. For high speed applications, deep groove
ball bearings, angular contact bearings and cylindrical roller bearings are
recommended.

(vi) Rigidity controls the selection of bearings in certain applications like

machine tool spindles. Double row cylindrical roller bearings or taper roller
STATIC LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY
STRIBECK’S EQUATION
DYNAMIC LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY
EQUIVALENT BEARING LOAD
LOAD-LIFE RELATIONSHIP
ELECTION OF BEARING LIFE
esign of IC Engine parts
An Internal Combustion engine (IC engine) is an engine in which the
combustion of fuel, such as petrol or diesel, takes place inside the engine
cylinder.

Although internal combustion engine consists of a large number of parts, we

will discuss the design principles of the following main components:

(i) Cylinder and cylinder liner

(ii) Piston, piston rings and gudgeon pin
(iii) Connecting rod with big and small ends
(iv) Crankshaft, crank and crank pin
(v) Valve gear mechanism
CYLINDER AND CYLINDER LINER
There are two basic functions of an IC engine cylinder:
The primary function is to retain the working fluid such as the mixture of air
and petrol or air and diesel, while the secondary function is to guide the
piston.

The combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder and very high
temperatures are encountered. Therefore, it is necessary to provide some
arrangement for cooling the cylinder.

Small, single-cylinder engines are usually air-cooled. Such cylinders are

provided with fins over the outer surface of the cylinder.

In small engines, the cylinder and frame is made of one-piece casting. In

large engines, a separate
cylinder liner is used. The cylinder liner, water jacket and frame are
manufactured separately and then assembled. The construction of cylinder
liner is illustrated in Fig.
There are two types of cylinder liners—dry liner and wet liner as shown in
Fig. A dry liner is a cylinder liner which does not have any direct contact
with cooling water in the jacket. A wet liner is a cylinder liner which has
outer surface in direct contact with cooling water in the jacket.
The desirable properties of materials for
cylinders and cylinder liners are as follows:

(i) It should be strong enough to withstand

high gas pressure during the combustion of
fuel.
(ii) It should be strong enough to withstand
thermal stresses due to heat transfer through
the cylinder wall.
(iii) It should be hard enough to resist wear
due to piston movement. It should have good
surface finish to reduce friction and wear
during the piston movement.
(iv) It should be corrosion resistant.
 BORE AND LENGTH OF CYLINDER
In engine terminology, ‘bore’ means the inner diameter of the cylinder.
The main dimensions of the cylinder are calculated as

where,
IP = indicated power or power produced inside the cylinder (W)
BP = brake power or power developed at the crankshaft (W)
h = mechanical efficiency (in fraction)

In examples where mechanical efficiency is not specified, it is assumed as

80% or 0.8. The length of the cylinder is more than
n = N (for two-stroke engines) the length of the stroke.
n = N/2 (for four-stroke engines) There is clearance on both sides of the
stroke. The total clearance on two sides
where, is taken as 15% of
the stroke length.
n = number of working strokes per minute
N = engine speed (rpm) L = 1.15 l , where, L = length of
where, pm = indicated mean cylinder (mm)
effective pressure (N/mm2 or MPa)
l = length of stroke (m)
A = of
n = number cross-sectional area of cylinder (mm2)
working strokes/min
D = diameter of cylinder or bore
(mm)
The (l/D) ratio for the cylinder is usually assumed from 1.25 to 2.
In examples where (l/D) ratio is not specified, it is assumed as 1.5.
 THICKNESS OF CYLINDER WALL
Thickness of thin cylinder is modified and used for engine cylinder

where,
t = thickness of cylinder wall (mm)
pmax. = maximum gas pressure inside the cylinder (N/mm2 or MPa)
D = inner diameter of cylinder or cylinder bore (mm)
σc = permissible circumferential (hoop) stress for cylinder material
(N/mm2)
C = reboring allowance (mm)

Note
(i) In examples where maximum gas pressure inside the cylinder is not
specified, it is assumed as 10 times of the indicated mean effective pressure,
pmax. = 10 (pm)
(ii) The circumferential hoop stress (σc) is the allowable tensile stress.
Since the cylinder material is brittle,

(iii) In examples where ultimate tensile strength of cylinder material and

factor of safety are not specified, the allowable circumferential stress (σc) is
taken as 35 to 100 N/mm2.
(iv) The reboring allowance is taken from Table
 CYLINDER HEAD
In most of the IC engines, a separate cylinder head or cylinder cover is
provided. The cylinder cover
accommodates the following parts:
(i) Inlet and exhaust valves
(ii) Air and gas ports
(iii) Spark plug in case of petrol engine and atomizer in case of diesel engine

The shape of the cylinder head becomes complicated due to accommodation

of the above units. In general, a box type section with considerable
thickness is used for the cylinder head. Calculating
where,cylinder
the various dimensions of the actual th = thickness
head is of cylinderexercise.
a difficult
However, in the preliminary head (mm)
K = constant
stages of design, the cylinder head (K as
is assumed = 0.162)
a flat circular plate and its
thickness is calculated by σc = allowable circumferential stress
the following equation: (N/mm2)
 DESIGN OF STUDS FOR CYLINDER HEAD
Studs are used to make the assembly of cylinder, cylinder head and gasket;
and provide a leak proof
joint. Initially, the studs are tightened by means of spanner to induce a
preload and in working conditions they are further subjected to tensile
stresses due to internal gas pressure acting on the cylinder head.

There are three important parameters in design of studs—number of studs,

nominal diameter and pitch of studs.

(i) Number of Studs: The number of studs (z) should be between the
following limits,
Minimum number of studs = 0.01D + 4
Maximum number of studs = 0.02D + 4

dc = core
(ii) Diameter of Studs: or minor
The core diameter
diameter of studs
of studs (mm), by
is obtained z =equating
number
of studs
the maximum gas force
σt cover
acting on the cylinder = allowable tensile stress
to the resisting forcefor stud material
offered (N/mm2)
by all studs.
(iii) Pitch of Studs The pitch circle diameter of the studs is obtained by the
following empirical
relationship: Dp = D + 3d
In order to obtain a leak proof joint, the pitch of studs should be between
the following two limits:
Minimum pitch = 19 √d
P 25.4 The cylinder of a four-stroke diesel engine has the following
specifications:
Brake power = 7.5 kW
Speed = 1400 rpm
Indicated mean effective pressure = 0.35 MPa
Mechanical efficiency = 80%
Maximum gas pressure = 3.5 MPa
The cylinder liner and head are made of grey cast iron FG 260 (Sut = 260
N/mm2 and m = 0.25). The
studs are made of plain-carbon steel 40C8 (Syt = 380 N/mm2). The factor of
safety for all parts is 6.
Calculate:
(i) bore and length of the cylinder liner
(ii) thickness of the cylinder liner
(iii) thickness of the cylinder head
(iv) size, number and pitch of studs

P 25.3 The bore of a cylinder of the four-stroke diesel engine is 120 mm.
The maximum gas pressure inside the cylinder is limited to 4 MPa. The
cylinder head is made of cast iron and allowable tensile stress is 40 N/mm2.
Determine the thickness of cylinder head. The studs, which are made of
steel, have allowable stress as 50 N/mm2.
Calculate (i) number of studs, (ii) nominal diameter of studs, and (iii) pitch
of studs.
PISTON
The main functions of the piston are as follows:
(i) It transmits the force due to gas pressure inside the cylinder to the
crankshaft through the connecting rod.
(ii) It compresses the gas during the compression stroke.
(iii) It seals the inside portion of the cylinder from the crankcase by means
of piston rings.
(iv) It takes the side thrust resulting from obliquity of the connecting rod.
(v) It dissipates large amount of heat from the combustion chamber to the
cylinder wall.
(i) Piston Head or Crown : It is the top
Trunk type
portion piston,
of the pistonaswhich
shownwithstands
in Fig., is the
used in IC engines.
gas pressure inside the cylinder. It has flat,
concave or convex shape depending upon the
construction of combustion chamber.
(ii) Piston Rings: They act as seal and
prevent the leakage of gas past the piston.
Piston rings are also called ‘compression’
rings.
(iii) Oil Scraper Ring : It prevents the
leakage of lubricating oil past the piston into
the combustion chamber.
(iv) Piston Skirt : It is the lower part of the
piston below the piston rings which acts as
 THICKNESS OF PISTON HEAD
There are two types of piston heads—flat plate type and cup type as shown
in Fig. The selection of the type depends upon the required volume for
combustion chamber
There are two criteriaand
for the arrangement
calculating of valves.
the thickness
of piston head—strength and heat dissipation.
On the basis of strength criterion, the piston head is
treated as a flat circular plate of uniform thickness
fixed at the outer edge and subjected to uniformly
distributed gas pressure (pmax.) over the entire
surface area.

According to Grashoff’s formula, the thickness of the

piston head is given by,
where,
th = thickness of piston head (mm)
D = cylinder bore (mm)
pmax. = maximum gas pressure or explosion pressure (MPa or N/mm2)
σb = permissible bending stress (N/mm2)

There is an empirical formula recommended by Held and Favary for the

thickness of the piston head.
According to this formula,
th = 0.032 D + 1.5 mm
On the basis of heat dissipation, the thickness of the piston head is given by,

where,
th = thickness of piston head (mm)
H = amount of heat conducted through piston head (W)
k = thermal conductivity factor (W/m/°C)
Tc = temperature at the center of piston head (°C)
Te = temperature at the edge of piston head (°C)

Note
(i) The values of thermal conductivity factor (k) are as follows:
For grey cast iron, k = 46.6 W/m/°C
For aluminium alloy, k = 175 W/m/°C

The amount of heat conducted through piston head (H) is given by,
H = [C x HCV x m x BP] x10^3
where,
HCV = Higher calorifi c value of fuel (kJ/kg)
m = mass of fuel used per brake power per second(kg/kW/s)
BP = brake power of the engine per cylinder (kW)

C is the ratio of heat absorbed by the piston to the total heat developed in
the cylinder (C = 5% or
 PISTON RIBS AND CUP
The piston head is provided with a number of ribs for the following reasons:
(i) Ribs strengthen the piston head against the gas pressure. They increase
the rigidity and prevent distortion of piston head.
(ii) Ribs transmit a large portion of combustion heat from the piston head to
the piston rings. This reduces the temperature difference between the
centre and edge of piston head.
(iii) The side thrust created by obliquity of connecting rod is transmitted to
the piston at the piston pin. It is then transmitted to the cylinder wall
through the skirt. The stiffening rib provided at the centre of boss and
A cup provides
extending around the skirt, distributes additional
the side thrust morespace for and
uniformly
prevents distortion of the skirt. combustion of fuel. Provision of cup at the
top of the piston head depends upon the
volume of combustion chamber.
It also depends upon the arrangement of
valves. If inlet and exhaust valves open and
close at angles near the top dead centre,
then there is possibility that either inlet or
exhaust valve may strike the piston top due
to overtaking. A spherical cavity in the form
of cup is provided for this purpose.
 PISTON RINGS
In IC engines, two types of piston rings are used, viz., compression rings
and oil scraper rings.

The main function of compression rings is to maintain a seal between the

cylinder wall and piston and prevent leakage of gas past the piston. They
also transfer heat from the piston head to the cylinder wall. Piston rings also
absorb fluctuations in side thrust.

Oil scraper rings or oil control rings are provided below the compression
rings. They provide proper lubrication of the cylinder liner and reduce
frictional losses. Oil scraper rings allow sufficient quantity of lubricating oil
to move up during the upward stroke and at the same time, scrap the excess
oil from the inner surface of the liner and send it back to the crankcase. This
prevents the leakage of oil into the combustion chamber.
Guidelines for design of piston rings
(i) Materials of Piston Rings: Piston rings are usually made of grey cast
iron and in some cases,
alloy cast iron. Grey cast iron has excellent wear resistance. It also retains
the spring characteristic at
high temperatures. In some cases, piston rings are chromium plated to
reduce wear.
(ii) Number of Piston Rings: There are no strict rules for deciding the
number of compression rings. The number of compression rings in
automobile and aircraft engines is usually between 3 to 4. In stationary
 It is preferred to provide more number of thin piston rings than a
small number of thick rings. It has the following advantages:
(a) Thin rings reduce frictional loss and wear of the surface.
(b)More number of thin rings have better sealing action than a few thick
rings.
(c) Thin rings occupy less piston length.
(d)More
(iv) number ofFree
Gap between thin Ends:
rings provide better of
The diameter heat transfer
a piston from
ring the piston
is slightly more
than top
thetocylinder
the cylinder.
bore (D). A part of the ring is slightly cut diagonally as
shown in Fig. 25.6(b). During the assembly, the ring is compressed
diagonally and passed into the liner. The gap G between the free ends of the
ring is as follows:
G = 3.5 b to 4 b (before assembly)
G = 0.002 D to 0.004 D (after assembly in cylinder)
TheWidth
(v) distance fromLand
of Top the top
andof Ring
the piston to the
Lands: first
Refer to ring
Fig. groove
for top (h1)
land is called
and ring
top land. It is given by, h1 = ( th) to (1.2th)
lands.
The distance between two consecutive ring grooves (h2) is called the width
of the ring groove and is given by, h2 = 0.75 h to h
 PISTON BARREL
The piston barrel is shown in Fig. It is the cylindrical portion of the piston
below the piston head. The thickness of the piston barrel at the top end is
given by, t 3 = (0.03D + b + 4.9)
where, t3 = thickness of piston barrel at the top end (mm)
b = radial width of ring (mm)
The thickness of piston barrel at the lower or open end is given by,
t4 = (0.25 t3) to (0.35 t3) t4 = thickness piston barrel at open end (mm)
 PISTON SKIRT
The cylindrical portion of the piston between the last scrapper ring and the
open end is called the piston skirt. The piston skirt acts as a bearing surface
for the side thrust. The length of the skirt should be such that the bearing
pressure due to side thrust is restricted to 0.25 MPa on the projected area.
 PISTON PIN
The function of the piston pin is to connect the piston to the connecting rod.
It is also called ‘gudgeon’ pin or ‘wrist’ pin. It is made of hollow circular
crosssection to reduce its weight. It is often tapered on the inside and the
smallest diameter is at the centre of the pin. The piston pin passes through
the bosses provided on the inner side of the piston skirt and a bearing bush
inside the small end of the connecting rod as shown in Fig. (a). The end
movement of the piston pin is restricted by means of circlips.
There are two criteria for design of the piston pin -
bearing consideration and bending failure.
P 25.6 The following data is given for a four-stroke diesel engine:
Cylinder bore = 250 mm
Length of stroke = 300 mm
Speed = 600 rpm
Indicated mean effective pressure = 0.6 MPa
Mechanical efficiency = 80%
Maximum gas pressure = 4 MPa
Fuel consumption = 0.25 kg per BP per h
Higher calorific value of fuel = 44 000 kJ/kg
Assume that 5% of the total heat developed in the cylinder is transmitted by
the piston. The piston is made of grey cast iron FG 200 (Sut = 200 N/mm2
and k = 46.6 W/m/°C) and the factor of safety is 5. The temperature
difference between the centre and the edge of the piston head is 220°C.
(i) Calculate the thickness of piston head by strength consideration.
(ii) Calculate the thickness of piston head by thermal consideration.
(iii)Which criterion decides the thickness of piston head?
(iv)State whether the ribs are required.
(v) If so, calculate the number and thickness of piston ribs.
(vi)State whether a cup is required in the top of the piston head.
(vii)If so, calculate the radius of the cup.
 CONNECTING ROD
The connecting rod consists of an eye at the small end to accommodate the
piston pin, a long shank and a big end opening split into two parts to
accommodate the crank pin.

The construction of connecting rod is illustrated in Fig.

The basic function of the connecting rod is to transmit the push and pull
forces from the piston pin to the crank pin. The connecting rod transmits the
reciprocating motion of the piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft. It
also transfers lubricating
The connecting oil engine
rod of an IC from theis crank
made pin to the piston pin and
provides a splash
by the drop or process
forging jet of oiland
to the
thepiston
outer assembly.
surfaces are left unfinished. Most internal
combustion engines have a conventional two-
piece connecting rod. The whole rod is
forged in one piece; the bearing cap is cut
off, faced and bolted in place for final
machining
The lengthofof the bigconnecting
the end. The small
rod end of important consideration.
is an
the rod is generally made as a solid eye and
then
Whenmachined.
the connecting rod is short as compared to the crank radius, it has
greater angular swing, resulting in greater side thrust on the piston.
In high-speed engines, the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the
crank radius (L/r) is generally 4 or less.
In low-speed engines, the (L/r) ratio varies from 4 to 5.
Most of the connecting rods in high-speed engines have an I-section. It
reduces the weight and inertia forces. It is also easy for forging. Most rods
have a rifle-drilled hole throughout the length from the small end to the big
end to carry the lubricating oil to the piston pin bearing.
In low-speed engines, circular cross-section is used.

The connecting
BUCKLING rod is a slenderROD
OF CONNECTING engine component that has
considerable length in proportion to its width and breadth. It is
subjected to axial compressive force equal to maximum gas load on the
piston. The compressive stress is of significant magnitude. Therefore, the
connecting rod is designed as a column or a strut.
The buckling of the connecting rod in two different planes—plane of motion
and a plane
perpendicular to the plane of motion is illustrated in Fig.

The following observations are made with reference to this figure:

(i) The buckling of the connecting rod in the plane of motion is shown in
Fig. (a). In this plane, the ends of connecting rod are hinged in the crank
pin and piston pin. Therefore, for buckling about the XX-axis, the end
fixity coefficient (n) is one.
(ii) The buckling of the connecting rod in a plane perpendicular to the plane
of motion is shown in Fig. (b). In this plane, the ends of the connecting
rod are fixed due to constraining effect of bearings at the crank pin and
piston pin. Therefore, for buckling about the YY-axis, the end fixity
coefficient (n) is four.
CROSS-SECTION FOR CONNECTING
ROD
A schematic diagram of the crank and connecting rod mechanism is shown
in
Fig. (a).
The following notations are used:
P = force acting on the piston due to gas pressure (N)
Ps = side thrust on the cylinder wall (N)
Pc = force acting on the connecting rod (N)
ϕ = angle of inclination of connecting rod with line of stroke
θ = angle of inclination of crank from top dead centre position
Q 25.12 Determine the dimensions of cross-section of the connecting rod
for a diesel engine with the following data:
Cylinder bore = 100 mm
Length of connecting rod = 350 mm
Maximum gas pressure = 4 MPa
 VALVE GEAR MECHANISM
The valve gear mechanism is a subassembly of the IC engine and its function
is to open and close the inlet and exhaust valves at a proper time with
respect to the position of the piston and crankshaft.
The fuel is admitted into the cylinder when the inlet valve is open. Also, the
burnt gases escape when the exhaust valve is open. The valve gear
mechanisms for vertical and horizontal engines are illustrated in Figs. The
main parts of a valve-gear mechanism are valve, spring, tappet, rocker arm,
push rod, cam and camshaft.
 DESIGN OF VALVES
Two types of valves are used in IC engines, viz., poppet or mushroom valves
and sleeve valves. There are limited applications of sleeve valves. They are
used in very few automobile engines.
The material
The poppet valves, onmaking
used for the other hand,
valves are frequently
should have the used in IC engines.
following characteristics:
(i) It should be heat resistant. (ii) It should have a good
thermal conductivity. (iii) It should be corrosion resistant. (iv)
It should have a wear resistant surface. (v) It should have
shock resistance.

The inlet valve is subjected to comparatively less

temperature than the exhaust valve. Therefore, inlet valves
are made of nickel–chromium steel. The exhaust valves are
made of heat resistant silicon– chromium steel.
For heavy duty engines, valves are made of chromium–
vanadium steel. The valves are heat treated and surface
hardness for inlet and exhaust valves is in the range of 250 to
300 HB.
The design of valves consists of the following steps:
 Q. 25.20 Design an exhaust valve for a horizontal diesel engine using the
following data:
Cylinder bore = 150 mm
Length of stroke = 275 mm
Engine speed = 500 rpm
Maximum gas pressure = 3.5 MPa
Seat angle = 45°

Calculate:
(i) diameter of the valve port;
(ii) diameter of the valve head;
(iii)thickness of the valve head;
(iv)diameter of the valve stem; and
(v) maximum lift of the valve.
P. 25.16 Design a valve spring for the exhaust valve of a four-stroke engine
using the following data: Diameter of valve head = 56 mm Lift of valve =
20 mm Maximum suction pressure = 0.025 MPa (below atmosphere)
Stiffness of spring = 10 N/mm Spring index = 8 Permissible torsional
shear stress for spring wire = 300 N/mm2 Modulus of rigidity = 84 x
10^3 N/mm2 Total gap between consecutive coils, when the spring is
subjected to maximum force, can be taken as 15% of maximum
compression.

Calculate: (i) maximum force on the spring; (ii) wire diameter; (iii) mean
 Design of Thin Cylinders
A cylinder is considered thin when the ratio of its inner diameter to the wall
thickness is more than 15.
Boiler shells, pipes, tubes, and storage tanks are treated as thin cylinders.
 DESIGN of THICK CYLINDERS
When the ratio of the inner diameter of the cylinder to the wall thickness is
less than 15, the cylinder is called a ‘thick-walled’ cylinder or simply ‘thick’
cylinder.
Hydraulic cylinders, high-pressure pipes and gun barrels are examples of
thick cylinders.

The difference between the analysis of stresses in thin and thick cylinders is
as follows:

(i) In thin cylinders, it is assumed that the tangential stress (σt) is uniformly
distributed over the cylinder wall thickness. In thick cylinders, the
tangential stress (σt) has highest magnitude at the inner surface of the
cylinder and gradually decreases towards the outer surface.
(ii) The radial stress (σr) is neglected in thin cylinders, while it is of
significant magnitude in case of thick cylinders.

There are a number of equations for the

design
of thick cylinders.
The choice of equation depends upon two
parameters—cylinder material (whether
brittle or ductile) and condition of cylinder
LAME’S EQUATION
When the material of the cylinder is brittle, such as cast iron or cast steel,
Lame’s equation is used
to determine the wall thickness.

CLAVARINO’S & BIRNIE’S EQUATIONS

When the material of the cylinder is ductile, such as mild steel or alloy
steel, maximum strain theory of failure is used as a criterion to indicate
failure. This theory is also called St Venant’s theory. According to this
theory, the material begins to yield or begins to fail when the maximum
strain at a point equals the
yield point strain in a simple tension test.

Clavarino’s equation is applicable to cylinders with closed ends and made of

ductile materials.
In addition to the above mentioned equations, one more equation called
Barlow’s equation is
sometimes used. It is used for high-pressure oil and gas pipes. Barlow’s
equation is given by,
where Do is the outer diameter of the cylinder. Barlow’s equation is
analogous to thin cylinder
equation except that the outer diameter (Do) is used instead of inner the
diameter (Di).
P 22.3 The
Barlow’s piston is
equation rod of a hydraulic cylinder exerts an operating force of
approximate.
10 kN. The friction due to piston packing and stuffi ng box is equivalent to
10% of the operating force. The pressure in the cylinder is 10 MPa. The
cylinder is made of cast iron FG 200 and the factor of safety is 5. Determine
the diameter and the thickness of the cylinder.
AUTOFRETTAGE
Autofrettage is a process of pre-stressing the cylinder before using it in
service. It is used in case
of high-pressure cylinders and gun barrels. When the cylinder is subjected
to internal pressure, the
circumferential stress (σt) at the inner surface limits the pressure capacity
of the cylinder. In the prestressing process, residual compressive stresses
are developed at the inner surface. When the cylinder is loaded in service,
(i) Aresidual
the compound cylinder consists
compressive stresses of
at two
the concentric cylinders
inner surface begin to with the outer
decrease,
cylinderzero
become shrunk
andonto thebecome
finally inner one. Thisasinduces
tensile compressive
the pressure stresses in the
is gradually
inner cylinder.
increased. ThereThe
arecompound cylinder
three methods is extensively
of prestressing used
the in practice.
cylinder. They are as
(ii) The second method consists of overloading the cylinder before it is put
follows:
into service. The
overloading pressure is adjusted in such a way that a portion of the cylinder
near the inner diameter is subjected to stresses in the plastic range, while
the outer portion is still in the elastic range. When the pressure is released,
the outer portion contracts exerting pressure on the inner portion which has
undergone permanent deformation. This induces residual compressive
stresses at the inner surface.
(iii) In the third method, a wire under tension is closely wound around the
cylinder, which results in residual compressive stresses.

Autofrettage increases the pressure capacity of the cylinder. It has another

advantage. The residual
 Optimization
Optimization is the act of obtaining the best result under given
circumstances.
In design, construction, and maintenance of any engineering system,
engineers have to take many technological and managerial decisions at
several stages.
The ultimate goal of all such decisions is either to minimize the effort
required or to maximize the desired benefit. Since the effort required or the
benefit desired in any practical situation can be expressed as a function of
certain
Fig. 1.1decision variables,
shows that optimization
if a point x∗ can be defined as the process of
finding the conditions
corresponds that give
to the minimum the of
value maximum or minimum value of a
function.
function f(x), the same point also
corresponds to the maximum value of the
negative of the function, −f(x).
Thus without loss of generality,
optimization can be taken to mean
minimization since the maximum of a
function can be found by seeking the
minimum of the negative of the same
function.
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF OPTIMIZATION

1. Design of aircraft and aerospace structures for minimum weight

2. Finding the optimal trajectories of space vehicles
3. Design of civil engineering structures such as frames, foundations,
bridges, towers, chimneys, and dams for minimum cost
4. Minimum-weight design of structures for earthquake, wind, and other
types of random loading
5. Design of water resources systems for maximum benefit
6. Optimal plastic design of structures
7. Optimum design of linkages, cams, gears, machine tools, and other
mechanical components
8. Selection of machining conditions in metal-cutting processes for minimum
production cost
9. Design of material handling equipment, such as conveyors, trucks, and
cranes, for minimum cost
10.Design of pumps, turbines, and heat transfer equipment for maximum
efficiency
11.Optimum design of electrical machinery such as motors, generators, and
transformers
12.Optimum design of electrical networks
13.Shortest route taken by a salesperson visiting various cities during one
tour
14.Optimal production planning, controlling, and scheduling
STATEMENT OF AN OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM

Design
Vector
Any engineering system or component is defined by a set of quantities some
of which are viewed as variables during the design process. In general,
certain quantities are usually fixed at the outset and these are called
preassigned parameters. All the other quantities are treated as variables in
the design process and are called design or decision variables xi, i =
1,2,...,n. The design variables are collectively represented as a design
vector X ={x1,x2,...,xn}.
Design Constraints
In many practical problems, the design variables cannot be chosen
arbitrarily; rather, they have to satisfy certain specified functional and other
requirements.
The restrictions that must be satisfied to produce an acceptable design are
collectively called design constraints.
Constraints that represent limitations on the behavior or performance of the
system are termed behavior or functional constraints.
Constraints that represent physical limitations on design variables, such as
availability, fabricability, and transportability, are known as geometric or
side constraints.
For example, for the gear pair , the face width b cannot be taken smaller
than a certain value, due to strength requirements. Similarly, the ratio of the
numbers of teeth, T1/T2, is dictated by the speeds of the input and output
shafts, N1 and N2.
Since these constraints depend on the performance of the gear pair, they
are called behavior constraints. The values of T1 and T2 cannot be any real
numbers but can only be integers. Further, there can be upper and lower
bounds on T1 and T2 due to manufacturing limitations. Since these
constraints depend on the physical limitations, they are called side
constraints.
onstraint Surface
For illustration, consider an optimization problem with only inequality
constraints gj(X) ≤ 0. The set of values of X that satisfy the equation gj(X) =
0 forms a hypersurface in the design space and is called a constraint
surface. Note that this is an (n−1)-dimensional subspace, where n is the
number of design variables.
Objective Function
The conventional design procedures aim at finding an acceptable or
adequate design that merely satisfies the functional and other requirements
of the problem. In general, there will be more than one acceptable design,
and the purpose of optimization is to choose the best one of the many
acceptable designs available. Thus a criterion has to be chosen for
comparing the different alternative acceptable designs and for selecting the
best one. The criterion with respect to which the design is optimized, when
expressed as a function of the design variables, is known as the criterion or
merit or objective function.

In some situations, there may be more than one criterion to be satisfied

simultaneously.
For example, a gear pair may have to be designed for minimum weight and
maximum efficiency while transmitting a specified horsepower. An
optimization problem involving multiple objective functions is known as a
multiobjective programming problem.

Thus if f1(X) and f2(X) denote two objective functions, construct a new
(overall) objective function for optimization as
Problem 1.1 Design a uniform column of tubular section, with hinge joints at
both ends, (shown in Fig.) to carry a compressive load P = 2500kgf for
minimum cost. The column is made up of a material that has a yield stress
(σy) of 500kgf/cm2, modulus of elasticity (E) of 0.85×106 kgf/cm2, and
weight density (ρ) of 0.0025kgf/cm3. The length of the column is 250cm. The
stress induced in the column should be less than the buckling stress as well
as the yield stress. The mean diameter of the column is restricted to lie
between 2 and 14cm, and columns with thicknesses outside the range 0.2 to
0.8cm are not available in the market. The cost of the column includes
Problem 1.2 A rocket is designed to
material and construction costs and can be taken as 5W +2d, where W is the
travel a distance of 12s in a vertically
weight in kilograms force and d is the mean diameter of the column in
upward direction [1.39]. The thrust of
centimeters.
the rocket can be changed only at the
discrete points located at distances of
0,s,2s,3s,...,12s. If the maximum
thrust that can be developed at point i
either in the positive or negative
direction is restricted to a value of Fi,
formulate the problem of minimizing
the total time of travel under the
following assumptions:
1. The rocket travels against the
gravitational force.
2. The mass of the rocket reduces in
proportion to the distance traveled.
Problem 1.10 A uniform column of rectangular cross section is to be
constructed for supporting a water tank of mass M (shown in Fig. below) . It
is required
(1)to minimize the mass of the column for economy, and
(2)to maximize the natural frequency of transverse vibration of the system
for avoiding possible resonance due to wind.
Formulate the problem of designing the column to avoid failure due to direct
compression and buckling. Assume the permissible compressive stress to be
σmax.
 Statistical Considerations in
Design of central tendency, such as the mean, the
There are different measures
median or the mode.
Suppose the population consists of N observations X1, X2,…, XN. The mean is
given by
When observations X1, X2, …, Xk occur at
frequencies f1, f2, …, fk the standard
deviation is given by

Variance is defined as the square of

the standard
The standard deviation is defined asdeviation.
the root mean
square deviation from the mean.
When observations belong to a sample of a population, it has been observed
that by replacing N
by (N – 1) in the denominator of Eq. 24.5, a better estimate of the standard
deviation is obtained. For large values of N (N > 30), there is practically no
difference between these two expressions.
Therefore, the standard deviation in such cases is given by

where S is the standard deviation of observations belonging to the sample of

the population.
Q. One hundred test specimens made of grey cast iron FG 300 are tested on
a universal testing machine to determine the ultimate tensile strength (Sut)
of the material.
Calculate: (i) theThe results
mean; are variance;
(ii) the tabulatedand
as follows:
(iii) the standard deviation for this sample.

Solution:
PROBABILISTIC APPROACH TO DESIGN
Traditionally, design engineers have used factor of safety to ensure against
uncertainty in magnitude
of external forces acting on the component, variations in properties of
materials like ultimate tensile strength or yield strength and variations in
dimensions of the component due to imperfect
workmanship.

However, it is not possible to determine reliability using the concept of

factor of safety. Since reliability is a design parameter, it should be
incorporated in the product at the design stage. The factor of safety does
not address reliability. Probabilistic approach is a technique to design the
component for a given magnitude of reliability.

In this approach, the following assumptions are made: