Module 1

Alternators

Engr. Gerard Ang

School of EECE
 AC Generator

Alternator (AC Generator) or Synchronous

Generator – it is an electrical machine converting
mechanical energy to ac electrical energy.
 Principle of Operation
The principle of operation of the alternator is exactly the same as that of
the dc generator that is there is induced emf in the stator conductors when
they cut the magnetic flux produced in its magnetic field poles. However in
an alternator it is not essential for the armature to rotate or and either the
armature or field can be made to rotate while the other is kept constant.
Nowadays the armature is kept stationary and the field rotates around it.

Rotating armature alternator Rotating field alternator

Principle of Operation
 Advantages of Revolving
Field – Stationary Armature

• The armature winding is more complex than the field and can
be constructed more easily on stationary armature.
• The armature winding can be braced more securely in rigid
frame.
• It is easier to insulate and protect the high-voltage armature
winding common to alternators.
• The armature winding is cooled more because the stator
case core can be made large enough and with many air
passages or air ducts for force air circulation.
• The low voltage field can be constructed for efficient high-
speed operation.
•
 Alternator Construction
The main parts of the alternator are the following:
1. Stator. It is built up with stampings which are
insulated with paper varnish. The stator is housed in
frame which is fabricated from electrically welded
steel plates. Slots are cut around the inner surface
which accommodates the windings.
2. Rotor. It has rotating magnetic field poles as in dc
generators which are separately excited from a dc
source known as exciter.
 Types of Rotor Construction
Two Types of Rotor
Construction:
1. Salient (or projecting)
poles. It is made of cast
iron steel of good
magnetic quality. These
types of rotors are used in
low speed and medium
speed machines. These
machines have short axial
length and large
diameters. Hydropower
alternators and diesel Types of rotors used in alternator.
engine alternators are of (A) Cylindrical type; (B) Salient-pole type
this type.
 Types of Rotor Construction
2. Smooth-cylindrical type.
It is made of a solid steel
piece and slots and made
on the circumference of the
rotor to hold the field
windings. This type of rotor
is suitable for high speed
turbo alternators. This type
of rotor is cylindrical and
has a large axial length
and small diameter

Types of rotors used in alternator.

(A) Cylindrical type; (B) Salient-pole type
 Alternator Construction (cont.)
2. Alternator Construction
a. Stationary field – revolving armature
b. Revolving field – stationary armature

3. Damper Windings (Squirrel Cage Windings)

Functions of Damper Windings:
 Useful in preventing hunting (momentary speed
fluctuations)
 Provides the starting torque needed in synchronous
motor
 Tends to maintain balanced 3-phase voltage under
unbalanced load conditions
 General Types of Alternator
1. Synchronous Generator. It is a generator which is driven
at constant speed (synchronous speed) and it is used in
almost all types of applications.

2. Induction Generator. It is an induction motor which runs

as a generator with a speed above synchronous speed. Its
p.f. is normally leading and usually connected in parallel
with a synchronous generator in order to supply power for
lighting loads.

3. Induction Alternator. It generates voltage at higher

frequencies (500 Hz to 10 kHz). It is used to supply power
to induction furnace in order to heat and melt the metal.
 Prime Movers for Alternator
The following are the various prime movers used for
alternators:
For large AC generator
a. Steam turbine
b. Gas turbine
c. Hydraulic turbine
d. Internal combustion engine

For small AC generator

a. Internal combustion engine
Generated Voltage in an Alternator
𝑬 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝝓𝒎 𝑵𝒌𝒑 𝒌𝒃 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝒇𝝓𝒎 𝒁𝒌𝒑 𝒌𝒃

Where: E = rms voltage generated per phase

φm = maximum flux per pole
N = number of turns per phase
Z = number of conductors in series per phase
kp = pitch or chording or coil span factor
kb = breadth or distribution or winding or spread factor

Frequency of Generated EMF

Where:
𝒑𝒏𝑺 f = frequency in Hertz
𝒇=
𝟏𝟐𝟎 p = number of poles
nS = synchronous speed in rpm
 Pitch Factor
Pitch Factor or Chording Factor or Coil Span Factor – it may be
defined as the ratio of the vector sum of the induced emf’s per coil
to the arithmetic sum of the induced emf’s per coil. It is may also be
defined as the ratio of the emf’s of short pitch coil to emf’s of full-
pitch coil. By formula, it is given as

𝒒𝝆
𝒌𝒑 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧[𝒒 𝟗𝟎° 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉]
𝟐

𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒔

𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 =
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆

Where: kp = pitch factor

q = qth harmonic (1 for fundamental or first harmonic, 3
for third harmonic, 5 for fifth harmonic and so on.
ρ = span of coil (coil pitch) in electrical degrees
 Pitch Factor
Short-pitched winding or chorded winding – a winding is
said to be short-pitched or fractional-pitched if its coils are
placed less than one pitch (180 electrical degrees) apart.

Reasons for using Short-pitched winding

 They save copper of end connections.
 They improved the waveform of the generated emf by
reducing or totally eliminating distorting harmonics
 They reduced the eddy current and hysteresis loss by
eliminating high frequency harmonics.
 Breadth Factor
Breadth or distribution or winding or spread factor – it is
defined as the ratio of emf’s of distributed winding to emf’s of
concentrated winding. By formula it is given as:

𝒒𝒏𝜹
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
𝟐 𝜹=
𝒌𝒃 = 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆
𝒒𝜹
𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐

Where:
kb = breadth factor
n = number of slots per pole per phase
δ = number of electrical degrees between adjacent slots
 Sample Problems
1. Calculate the pitch factor for the given windings:
a. 36 stator slots, 4-poles, coil span = 1 to 8

Solution:
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 36 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
= =9
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 4 ρ
180°
Computing for the coil pitch
𝜌 180°
= 𝜌 = 140°
7 9
𝜌 140°
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2

𝒌𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒
 Sample Problems
b. 72 stator slots, 6-poles, coil span = 1 to 10

Solution:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 72 ρ
= = 12
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 6 180°

Computing for the coil pitch

𝜌 180° 𝜌 = 135°
=
9 12
𝜌 135°
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐
2 2
 Sample Problems
c. 96 stator slots, 6-poles, coil span = 1 to 12

Solution:
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 96
= = 16
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
ρ
180°

Computing for the coil pitch

𝜌 180°
= 𝜌 = 123.75°
11 16
𝜌 123.75°
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖
2 2
 Sample Problems
2. Calculate the breadth factor for a 36-slots, 4 pole,
single-layer, three phase winding.
Solution:
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 36
= =9
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 4
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
180° 180° 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 9 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝛿= = = 20° 𝑛= = =3
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 9 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑛𝛿 3 × 20°
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 𝑘𝑏 = 2
𝑘𝑏 = 20°
𝛿 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
2

𝒌𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔
 Sample Problems
3. An alternator has 18 slots per pole and the first coil lies in slots
1 and 16. Calculate the pitch factor for (a) fundamental (b) 3rd
harmonic.

Solution: Computing for the coil pitch

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝜌 180° 𝑞𝜌
= 18 = 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝜌 = 150° 2
15 18
(a) For the fundamental harmonic, q = 1
1 × 150° 𝒌𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕
𝑘𝑝1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
(b) For the third harmonic, q = 3
3 × 150°
𝑘𝑝3 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝒑𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏
2
 Sample Problems
4. A 3-φ, 16-pole alternator has a star-connected winding with 144
slots and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03
Weber sinusoidally distributed and the speed is 375 rpm. Find
the frequency and the phase and line emf. Assume full-pitched
coil.
Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑍 = 10 × 144 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 ÷ 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 480
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

180° 180°
𝛿= = = 20°
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 144
16

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 144 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠

𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 16 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑛= = =3
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
 𝑛𝛿 3 × 20°
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 𝑘𝑏 = 2 = 0.96
𝑘𝑏 = 20°
𝛿 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
2
𝑝𝑁 16 375
𝑓= 𝑓= 𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑯𝒛
120 120

Assume full-pitched, kp = 1

𝐸𝑝ℎ = 2.22𝑓𝜙𝑚 𝑍𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑏 𝐸𝑝ℎ = 2.22 50 0.03 480 1 0.96

𝑬𝒑𝒉 = 𝟏, 𝟓𝟑𝟒. 𝟒𝟔 𝑽

𝐸𝐿 = 3 𝐸𝑝ℎ 𝐸𝐿 = 3 1,534.46

𝑬𝑳 = 𝟐, 𝟔𝟓𝟕. 𝟕𝟔 𝑽
 Sample Problems
5. The stator of a 3-φ, 16-pole alternator has 144 slots and there
are 4 conductors per slot connected in two layers and the
conductors of each phase are connected in series. If the speed
of the alternator is 375 rpm, calculate the emf per phase.
Resultant flux in the air-gap is 5 x 10-2 Weber sinusoidally
distributed. Assume the coil span as 150° electrical.

Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑍=4 × 144 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 ÷ 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 192
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
180° 180°
𝛿= = = 20°
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 144
16
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 144 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑛= = 16 = 3
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
 𝜌 150°
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0.97
2 2
𝑛𝛿 3 × 20°
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 𝑘𝑏 = 2 = 0.96
𝑘𝑏 = 20°
𝛿 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
2

𝑝𝑁 16 375
𝑓= 𝑓= = 50 Hz
120 120

𝐸𝑝ℎ = 2.22𝑓𝜙𝑚 𝑍𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑏

𝐸𝑝ℎ = 2.22 50 5 × 10−2 192 0.97 0.96

𝑬𝒑𝒉 = 𝟗𝟗𝟐. 𝟐𝟗 𝑽
 Sample Problems
6. An alternator on open circuit generates 360 V at 60 Hz when
the field current is 3.6 A. Neglecting saturation, determine the
open-circuit emf when the frequency is 40 Hz and the field
current is 2.4 A.
Solution:

𝐸𝑝ℎ = 2.22𝑓𝜙𝑚 𝑍𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑏

If Z, kp and kb are constants and 𝜙𝑚 is proportional to 𝐼𝑓 ,

𝐸𝑝ℎ = 𝑘𝑓𝐼𝑓 𝐸𝑝ℎ1 = 𝑘1 𝑓1 𝐼𝑓1 ⟶ 𝑒𝑞. (1)

𝐸𝑝ℎ2 = 𝑘2 𝑓2 𝐼𝑓2 ⟶ 𝑒𝑞. (2)

Dividing eq. (2) by eq. (1),

𝐸𝑝ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑓2 𝐼𝑓2
= k1 = k2 = k (same machine)
𝐸𝑝ℎ1 𝑘1 𝑓1 𝐼𝑓1

𝐸𝑝ℎ1 = 360 V 𝑓1 = 60 𝐻𝑧 𝐼𝑓1 = 3.6 𝐴

𝐸𝑝ℎ2 =? ? ? V 𝑓2 = 40 𝐻𝑧 𝐼𝑓2 = 2.4 𝐴

𝐸𝑝ℎ2 40 2.4
=
360 60 3.6

𝑬𝒑𝒉𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝑽
 Sample Problems
7. A 4-pole, 3-φ, 50 Hz, star-connected, alternator has 60 slots,
with 4 conductors per slot. Coils are short-pitched by 3 slots. If
the phase spread is 60°, find the line voltage induced for a flux
per pole of 0.943 Wb distributed sinusoidally in space. All the
turns per phase are in series.
Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑍=4 × 60 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 ÷ 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 80
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 60 180° 180°

= = 15 𝛿= = = 12°
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 4 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 15

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠Τ𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 15 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠Τ𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑛= = =5
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
 𝑛𝛿 5 × 12°
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
𝑘𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 = = 0.96
𝛿 12°
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2

Since the coils are short-pitched by 3 slots, the coil pitch is 12 slots
Computing for the coil pitch

𝜌 180°
= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
12 15
ρ
𝜌 = 144° 180°

𝜌
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 𝐸𝐿 = 3 2.22𝑓𝜙𝑚 𝑍𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑏
144°
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0.95 𝐸𝐿 = 3 2.22 50 0.943 80 0.95 0.96
2
𝑬𝑳 = 𝟏𝟑, 𝟐𝟐𝟕. 𝟓𝟕 𝑽
 Sample Problems
8. A 4-pole, 50-Hz, star-connected alternator has 15 slots per pole
and each slot has 10 conductors. All the conductors of each
phase are connected in series. The winding factor being 0.95.
When running on no-load for a certain flux per pole, the
terminal emf was 1,825 volts. If the windings are lap-connected
as in a dc machine, what would be emf between brushes for the
same speed and the same flux/pole. Assume sinusoidal
distribution of flux. Assume full-pitched winding.

Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝑍𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 10 × 15 × 4 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 600 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑍 = 600 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ÷ 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 200
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
 𝑘𝑏 = 0.96 𝑘𝑝 = 1

1,825
𝐸𝑝ℎ = 2.22𝑓𝜙𝑚 𝑍𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑏 = 2.22 50 𝜙𝑚 200 1 0.95
3
𝜙𝑚 = 49.96 𝑚𝑊𝑏

𝑝𝑁 4𝑁
𝑓= 50 = 𝑁 = 1,500 𝑟𝑝𝑚
120 120

If the windings are lap-connected as in a dc machine for the

same speed and the same flux/pole

𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑚 𝑁 600 4 49.96 × 10−3 1,500

𝐸𝑔 = 𝐸𝑔 =
60𝑎 60 4

𝑬𝒈 = 𝟕𝟒𝟗. 𝟒𝟎 𝑽
 Sample Problems
9. Calculate the rms value of the induced emf per phase of a 10-
pole, 3-φ, 50-Hz alternator with 2 slots per pole per phase and 4
conductors per slot in two layers. The coil span is 150°. The flux
per pole has a fundamental component of 0.12 Wb and a 20%
third component.
Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠Τ𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑍=4 ×2 × 10 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 80
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠Τ𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠Τ𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑛=2 =2 × 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 6
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
180° 180°
𝜌 = 150° 𝛿= = = 30°
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 6
 𝑞𝑛𝛿
𝑞𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑏 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ = 2.22𝑓𝜙𝑚 𝑍𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑏
2 𝑞𝛿
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

For the fundamental harmonic, q = 1

1 × 2 × 30°
1 × 150° 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑘𝑏1 = 2 = 0.97
𝑘𝑝1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0.97 1 × 30°
2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

𝜙𝑚1 = 0.12 𝑊𝑏

𝑓1 = 50 𝐻𝑧 𝐸𝑝ℎ1 = 2.22 50 0.12 80 0.97 0.97

𝐸𝑝ℎ1 = 1,002.62 𝑉
For the third harmonic, q = 3
3 × 2 × 30°
𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 × 150° 𝑘𝑏3 = 2 = 0.71
𝑘𝑝3 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0.71 3 × 30°
2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

𝜙𝑚3 = 0.20 0.12 = 0.024 𝑊𝑏

𝑓3 = 3 50 = 150 𝐻𝑧 𝐸𝑝ℎ3 = 2.22 150 0.024 80 0.71 0.71

𝐸𝑝ℎ3 = 322.30 𝑉

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ1 2 + 𝐸𝑝ℎ3 2

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 1,002.62 2 + 322.30 2

𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟏, 𝟎𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝑽
 Alternators on Load

The variation of terminal voltage of an alternator on

different types of loading is due to the following reasons:
1. Voltage drop due to armature resistance, Ra
2. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance, XL
(also called as Potier reactance)
3. Voltage drop due to armature reaction
 Generated Voltage
of an Alternator

𝑬𝒈 = 𝑽𝑻 + 𝑰𝒂 𝒁𝑺 𝒁𝑺 = 𝑹𝒂 + 𝒋𝑿𝑺 𝑿𝑺 = 𝑿𝑳 + 𝑿𝒇

Where:
Eg = generated voltage per phase
E = induced emf due to armature reaction
VT = terminal voltage per phase
ZS = synchronous impedance per phase
Ra = armature resistance per phase
Xs = synchronous reactance per phase
XL = armature leakage reactance per phase
Xf = fictitious reactance per phase due to armature reaction
 Vector Diagrams
of a Loaded Generator
1. For lagging p.f load

Eg
IaZS
E

IaZ
θ VT
IaRa

Ia
 Vector Diagrams
of a Loaded Generator (cont.)
2. For unity p.f. load

IaXf
Eg
IaZS
IaXS
E
IaXL
IaZ

Ia VT IaRa
 Vector Diagrams
of a Loaded Generator (cont.)
3. For leading p.f load

IaZS
Eg
E
Ia
IaZ

θ IaRa

VT
 Generated Voltage
of an Alternator
• By Formula

𝑬𝒈 = (𝑽𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 )𝟐 +(𝑽𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ± 𝑰𝒂 𝑿𝑺 )𝟐

Use:
(+)  if power factor is lagging
(-)  if power factor is leading
 Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation of an alternator is:

𝑬𝒈 − 𝑽 𝑻
%𝑽𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝑻

Note:
• When the alternator has a leading load p.f, it will have a
negative voltage regulation
• When the alternator has a lagging load p.f, it will have a
positive voltage regulation
 Sample Problems
10. A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a load of 10 MW
at p.f. 0.85 lagging and at 11 kV (terminal voltage). Its
resistance is 0.1 ohm per phase and synchronous reactance
0.66 ohm per phase. Calculate the line value of e.m.f.
generated.
Solution:
Let 𝑉𝑇 be the reference vector,
11,000
𝑉𝑇 = ∠0° 𝑉
3
10 × 106
𝐼𝑎 = ∠ − cos −1 0.85
3 11,000 0.85

𝐼𝑎 = 617.49∠ − 31.79° 𝐴
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑆

11,000
𝐸𝑔 = ∠0° + 617.49∠ − 31.79° 0.1 + 𝑗0.66
3

𝐸𝑔 = 6,625.47∠2.72° 𝑉

𝐸𝑔 = 3 6,625.47 ∠2.72° + 30° 𝑉

𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟒𝟕𝟓. 𝟔𝟓 ∠𝟑𝟐. 𝟕𝟐° 𝑽 (𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆)

 Sample Problems
11. A 60-kVA, 220 V, 50-Hz, 1-phase alternator has effective
armature resistance of 0.016 ohm and an armature leakage
reactance of 0.07 ohm. Compute the percent voltage regulation
of the armature when the alternator is delivering rated current at
a load power factor of (a) unity (b) 0.7 lagging and (c) 0.7
leading.

Solution:
Let 𝑉𝑇 be the reference vector,
𝑉𝑇 = 220∠0° 𝑉

60 × 103
𝐼𝑎 =
220

𝐼𝑎 = 272.72 𝐴
 𝐸𝑔 − 𝑉𝑇
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑆 %𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝑇

(a) At unity pf load 𝜃 = cos −1 1 = 0°

𝐼𝑎 = 272.72∠0° 𝐴
𝐸𝑔 = 220∠0° + 272.72∠0° 0.016 + 𝑗0.07 = 225.17∠4.86° 𝑉
225.17 − 220
%𝑉𝑅 = × 100% %𝑽𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓%
220
(b) At 0.7 lagging load 𝜃 = cos −1 0.7 = 45.57°
𝐼𝑎 = 272.72∠ − 45.57° 𝐴

𝐸𝑔 = 220∠0° + 272.72∠ − 45.57° 0.016 + 𝑗0.07 = 236.91∠2.48° 𝑉

236.91 − 220
%𝑉𝑅 = × 100% %𝑽𝑹 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟗%
220
(c) At 0.7 leading load 𝜃 = cos −1 0.7 = 45.57°

𝐼𝑎 = 272.72∠45.57° 𝐴

𝐸𝑔 = 220∠0° + 272.72∠45.57° 0.016 + 𝑗0.07 = 210.07∠4.50° 𝑉

210.07 − 220
%𝑉𝑅 = × 100% %𝑽𝑹 = −𝟒. 𝟓𝟏%
220
 Sample Problems
12. A 1,000 kVA, 3,300-V, 3-phase, star-connected alternator
delivers full-load current at rated voltage at 0.80 p.f. lagging.
The resistance and synchronous reactance of the machine per
phase are 0.5 ohm and 5 ohms respectively. Determine the
terminal voltage for the same excitation and same load current
at 0.80 p.f. leading.

Solution:
Let 𝑉𝑇 be the reference vector,
3,300
𝑉𝑇 = ∠0° 𝑉
3
1,000 × 103
𝐼𝑎 = ∠ − cos −1 0.8
3 3,300

𝐼𝑎 = 174.95∠ − 36.87° 𝐴
 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑆
3,300
𝐸𝑔 = ∠0° + 174.95∠ − 36.87° 0.5 + 𝑗5
3
𝐸𝑔 = 2,582.53∠14.52° 𝑉

At same excitation and same load current at 0.80 p.f. leading.

𝐼𝑎 = 174.95∠36.87° 𝐴
2,582.53∠14.52° = 𝑉𝑇 + 174.95∠36.87° 0.5 + 𝑗5

𝑉𝑇 = 2,956.77∠ − 2.03° 𝑉

𝑉𝑇 = 3 2,956.77 ∠ − 2.03° + 30° 𝑉

𝑽𝑻 = 𝟓, 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟖∠𝟐𝟕. 𝟗𝟕° 𝑽 (𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆)

 Sample Problems
13. A given 3-MVA, 50-Hz, 11-kV, 3-phase, Y-connected alternator
when supplying 100 A at zero p.f. leading has a line-to-line
voltage of 12,370 V. At no-load, the terminal voltage falls down
to 11,000 V. Determine the regulation of the alternator when
supplying full-load at 0.8 p.f. lag. Assume an effective resistance
of 0.4 Ω per phase.
Solution:
Let 𝑉𝑇 be the reference vector,
11,000
𝑉𝑇 = ∠0° 𝑉
3
At zero p.f leading load, 𝜃 = cos −1 0 = 90°

𝐼𝑎 = 100∠90° 𝐴 12,370
𝑉𝑇 = ∠0° 𝑉
3
When the load is removed,
11,000
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉
3

𝐸𝑔 = (𝑉𝑇 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )2 +(𝑉𝑇 sin 𝜃 ± 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑆 )2

𝐸𝑔 2 = (𝑉𝑇 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )2 +(𝑉𝑇 sin 𝜃 ± 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑆 )2

𝜃 = 90° cos 𝜃 = 0 sin 𝜃 = 1

2 2
11,000 2
12,370
= 100 × 0.4 + − 100𝑋𝑆
3 3

𝑋𝑆 = 7.91 Ω
When supplying full-load at 0.8 p.f. lag.

3 × 106
𝐼𝑎 = ∠ − cos −1 0.8
3 11,000

𝐼𝑎 = 157.46∠ − 36.87° 𝐴

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑆
11,000
𝐸𝑔 = ∠0° + 157.46∠ − 36.87° 0.4 + 𝑗7.91
3
𝐸𝑔 = 7,212.54∠7.64° 𝑉

11,000
7,212.54 −
3
%𝑉𝑅 = × 100% %𝑽𝑹 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟕%
11,000
3
 Operation of
Salient Pole Machines
• A multipolar machine with cylindrical rotor has a uniform air-gap,
because of which its reactance remains the same, irrespective of
the spatial position of the rotor. However, a synchronous
machine with salient or projecting poles has non-uniform air-gap
due to which its reactance varies with the rotor position.

• A salient-pole machine possesses two

axes of geometric symmetry:
a. field poles axis, called direct axis
or d-axis
b. axis passing through the centre of
the interpolar space, called the
quadrature axis or q-axis,
Equivalent Circuit for a Salient
Pole Synchronous Machine
Ra
Xq, Xd

Eg Ia
VT

𝑬𝒈 = 𝑽𝑻 + 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝒋𝑰𝒅 𝑿𝒅 + 𝒋𝑰𝒒 𝑿𝒒 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝒅 + 𝑰𝒒

Where: Xd = direct axis reactance per phase

Xq = quadrature axis reactance per phase
Id = direct axis current per phase
Iq = quadrature axis current per phase
 Phasor Diagram for a Salient
Pole Synchronous Machine
• For a lagging power factor load
Eg
IqXq
Iq IaXq
δ VT
ψ θ
IdXd
Ia IaRa

Where: ψ = internal power factor angle

Id
δ = load angle
θ = power factor angle
 Generated Voltage of Salient
Pole Synchronous Machine
• Assuming Eg as the reference vector
Iq Eg

ψ δ IqXq
θ IaXq
VT
Ia
Id
IaRa
IdXd
Where: ψ = internal power factor angle
δ = load angle
θ = power factor angle
 Generated Voltage of Salient
Pole Synchronous Machine
• By Formula

𝑽𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧(±𝜽) ± 𝑰𝒂 𝑿𝒒
𝑬𝒈 = 𝑽𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 ± 𝑰𝒒 𝑹𝒂 ± 𝑰𝒅 𝑿𝒅 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝍 =
𝑽𝑻 𝒄𝒐𝒔(±𝜽) ± 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂

𝑰𝒅 = 𝑰𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝍 Use:
(+)  For synchronous generator
𝑰𝒒 = 𝑰𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝍 (-)  For synchronous motor

𝝍=𝜽±𝜹 Use
+θ  For lagging power factor
-θ  For leading power factor
 Power Developed by a Salient
Pole Synchronous Generator
• Neglecting Ra, the power developed (Pd) by a a salient-
pole alternator is derived as:

𝑬𝒈 𝑽𝑻 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝒅 Τ𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝑽𝑻 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜹
𝑿𝒅 𝟐 𝑿𝒒 𝑿𝒅

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑫𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 = 𝟑 × 𝑷𝒅

Where: Eg = emf generated per phase

VT = terminal voltage per phase
 Sample Problems
14. A 3-phase alternator has a direct-axis synchronous reactance of
0.7 p.u. and a quadrature axis synchronous reactance of 0.4
p.u. For full-load 0.8 p.f. lagging, obtain (a) the load angle and
(b) the no-load per unit voltage.

Solution:
Let 𝑉𝑇 = 1 𝑝. 𝑢. 𝐼𝑎 = 1 𝑝. 𝑢.

𝑉𝑇 sin(𝜃) + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑞 cos 𝜃 = 0.8 sin 𝜃 = 0.6

tan 𝜓 =
𝑉𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
1 0.6 + (1)(0.4)
tan 𝜓 =
1 0.8 + (1)(0)
𝜓 = 51.34° 𝜃 = cos −1 0.8 = 36.87°
(a) For the load angle

𝜓=𝜃+𝛿

51.34° = 36.87° + 𝛿

𝜹 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝟕°

(b) For the no-load per unit voltage

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 cos 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 cos 𝜓 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑑 sin 𝜓

𝐸𝑔 = (1) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 14.47° + (1)(0) cos 51.34° + 1 0.7 sin 51.34°

𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏∠𝟎° 𝒑. 𝒖.
 Sample Problems
15. A 3-phase, star-connected, 50-Hz synchronous generator has
direct-axis synchronous reactance of 0.6 p.u. and quadrature-
axis synchronous reactance of 0.45 p.u. The generator delivers
rated kVA at rated voltage. For a full-load 0.8 p.f. lagging load,
calculate the voltage regulation. Resistive drop at full-load is
0.015 p.u.
Solution:
Let 𝑉𝑇 = 1 𝑝. 𝑢. 𝐼𝑎 = 1 𝑝. 𝑢.

𝑉𝑇 sin(𝜃) + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑞 cos 𝜃 = 0.8 sin 𝜃 = 0.6

tan 𝜓 =
𝑉𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
1 0.6 + (1)(0.45)
tan 𝜓 =
1 0.8 + 0.015
𝜓 = 52.18° 𝜃 = cos −1 0.8 = 36.87°
 𝜓=𝜃+𝛿 52.18° = 36.87° + 𝛿

𝛿 = 15.31°

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 cos 𝜓 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑑 sin 𝜓

𝐸𝑔 = (1) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15.31° + 0.015 cos 52.18° + 1 0.6 sin 52.18°

𝐸𝑔 = 1.45 𝑝. 𝑢.

𝐸𝑔 − 𝑉𝑇 1.45 − 1
%𝑉𝑅 = × 100% %𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝑇 1

%𝑽𝑹 = 𝟒𝟓%
 Sample Problems
16. A single-phase, synchronous generator supplies current of 10 A
having phase angle of 20° lagging at 200 V. Find the load angle
and the components of armature current Id and Iq if Xd = 10
ohms and Xq = 6.5 ohms. Assume armature resistance to be
negligible.

Solution:
𝑉𝑇 = 200 𝑉 𝐼𝑎 = 10∠ − 20° 𝐴

𝑉𝑇 sin(𝜃) + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑞 200 sin(20°) + 10 6.5

tan 𝜓 = tan 𝜓 =
𝑉𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 200 𝑐𝑜𝑠(20°) + 10 0

𝜓 = 35.37°
(a) For the load angle

𝜓 = 35.37° 𝜓=𝜃+𝛿 35.37° = 20° + 𝛿

𝜹 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟕°

(b) For the components of armature current Id and Iq

𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜓 𝐼𝑑 = 10 sin 35.37° = 5.79 A

𝑰𝒅 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟗∠ − 𝟗𝟎° 𝑨

𝐼𝑞 = 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜓 𝐼𝑞 = 10 cos 35.37° = 8.15 𝐴

𝑰𝒒 = 𝟖. 𝟏𝟓∠𝟎° 𝑨