LECTURE # 5

Investment casting
Investment Casting - Introduction
The term investment derives from the fact that the pattern is invested
with the refractory mold material.
The investment-casting process, also called the lost-wax process, was first
used during the period 4000-3000 B.C.
A number of patterns can be joined to make one mold, called a
tree significantly increasing the production rate.
Wax patterns require careful handling
because they are not strong enough
to withstand the forces involved
during mold making.

However, unlike plastic patterns, wax

can be recovered and reused.
Investment Casting - Process
(a – c) The pattern is made of wax or of a plastic (such as Polystyrene)
by injecting molten wax or plastic into a metal die in the shape of the
object or rapid prototyping techniques.
(d – f) The pattern is then dipped
into a slurry of refractory material
such as very fine silica and binders,
including water, ethyl silicate, and
acids.

After this initial coating has dried,

the pattern is coated repeatedly to
increase its thickness.

The one-piece mold is dried in air

and heated to a temperature of 90
°C-175 °C
Investment Casting - Process
(g – j) The investment is then placed into a chamber and evacuated to remove air bubbles in it
until the mold solidifies.

It is held in an inverted position for about 12 hours to melt out the wax. The mold is then fired
to 650 °C-I 050 °C for about 4 hours, depending on the metal to be cast, to drive off the water
of crystallization (chemically combined water) and burn off any residual wax.

After the metal has been poured and has solidified, the mold is broken up and the casting is
removed.
Investment Casting - Process
Investment Casting-Advantages & Limitations
Although the labor and materials involved make the lost-wax process costly.

it is suitable for casting high-melting-point alloys with good surface finish and
close dimensional tolerances. Therefore, few or no finishing operations,
which would otherwise add significantly to the total cost of the casting are
required.

This process is capable of producing intricate shapes, with parts weighing

from I g to 35 kg

From a wide variety of ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys.

Typical parts made are components for office equipment as well as mechanic!!
components such as gears, cams, valves etc

Parts up to 1.5 m (60 in.) in diameter and weighing as much as 1140 kg have
been successfully manufactured through this process.
Automated Mold Making In Investment
Casting
A robot generates a ceramic
shell on wax patterns (trees)
for investment casting. The
robot is programmed to dip
the trees and then place them
in an automated drying
system. With many layers, a
thick ceramic shell suitable for
investment casting is formed.

Video
Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal-Casting Process

• Centrifugal casting uses a permanent mold that is rotated about

its axis at a speed between 300 to 3000 rpm as the molten
metal is poured. Centrifugal forces cause the metal to be
pushed out towards the mold walls, where it solidifies after
cooling.

• Molds are made of steel, iron, or graphite, and may be coated

with a refractory lining to increase mold life. The mold surfaces
can be shaped so that pipes with various outer shapes,
including square or polygonal, can be cast. The inner surface of
the casting remains cylindrical because the molten metal is
uniformly distributed by centrifugal forces.
Centrifugal - Casting Process

• Parts cast in this method have a fine grain microstructure, which is resistant
to atmospheric corrosion; hence this method has been used to manufacture
pipes. Since metal is heavier than impurities, most of the impurities and
inclusions are closer to the inner diameter and can be machined away.

• Surface finish along the inner diameter is also much worse than along the
outer surface.

• Cylindrical parts ranging from 13 mm (0.5 in.) to 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and
16 m (50 ft) long can be cast centrifugally, with wall thicknesses ranging from
6 mm to 125 mm (0.25 in. to 5 in.). The pressure generated by the
centrifugal force is high, as much as 150 g's, and such high pressure is
necessary for casting thick-walled parts.
True centrifugal casting - Process
In true centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a rotating mold. The
axis of rotation is usually horizontal but can be vertical for short work-
pieces.
(a) Schematic illustration of the true centrifugal-casting process. hollow
cylindrical parts, such as pipes, gun barrels, cylinder liners, and similarly
shaped parts can be cast with this process. (b) Side view of the machine.
 Continuous Casting
• A water cooled mold is used to make a long
casting of constant cross section
• Liquid metal is poured into the mold against a
starter block
• As the metal solidifies it is removed exposing
more liquid to the mold face
Continuous Casting
Die casting
• The die-casting process, developed in the early 1900s,
is an example of permanent mold casting.
• The molten metal is forced into the die cavity at
pressures ranging from 0.7 MPa- 700
• Typical parts made through die casting are motors,
business-machine and appliance components, hand
tools, and toys.
• The weight of most castings ranges from less than 90 g
to about 25 kg
• There are two basic types of die-casting machines: hot-
chamber and cold-chamber.
Die casting - introduction
Description: Molten metal is injected, under pressure, into hardened steel dies, often
water cooled. Dies are opened, and castings are ejected.
Metals: Aluminum, Zinc, Magnesium, and limited Brass.
Size Range: Not normally over 2 square feet. Some foundries capable of larger sizes.

Tolerances:
Al and Mg  .002/in.
Zinc  .0015/in.
Brass  .001/in.
Add  .001 to  .015 across parting line depending on size
Surface Finish: Good
Minimum Draft Requirements:
Al & Mg: 1° to 3°
Zinc: 1/2° to 2°
Brass: 2° to 5°
Normal Minimum Section Thickness:
Al & Mg: .03 Small Parts: .06 Medium Parts
Zinc: .03 Small Parts: .045 Medium Parts
Brass: .025 Small Parts: .040 Medium Parts
Die casting – Hot chamber process
• The hot-chamber process involves the use of a piston, which
traps a certain volume of molten metal and forces it into the die
cavity through gooseneck nozzle.
• Pressures range up to 35 MPa, with an average of about 15 MPa
• The metal is held under pressure until it solidifies in the die.
• To improve die life and to aid in rapid metal cooling (thereby
reducing cycle time) dies are usually cooled by circulating water
or oil through various passageways in the die block.
• Cycle times usually range up to 200-300 shots (individual
injections) per hour for zinc.
• Although very small components such as zipper teeth can be cast
at 18000 shots peer hour
• Low melting-point alloys such as zinc, magnesium, tin, and lead
are commonly cast using this process.
Die casting – Hot chamber process
 Die casting – Cold chamber process
• In the cold-chamber process, molten metal is poured
into the injection cylinder (shot chamber).
• The shot chamber is not heated, hence the term cold
chamber is used.
• The metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures
usually ranging from 20 MPa to 150 MPa
• The machines may be horizontal or vertical, in which
case the shot chamber is vertical and the machine is
similar to a vertical press.
Die casting – Cold chamber process

COLD CHAMBER VIDEO VIDEO2

Die casting – Applications
Casting Defects
Inspection of Castings
Castings are inspected to determine their quality and the
presence of any defects.

Castings can be inspected visually or optically for surface

defects. Subsurface and internal defects are investigated using
various nondestructive techniques.

In destructive testing test specimens are removed from various

sections of a casting to test for strength, ductility, and other
mechanical properties, and to determine the presence and
location of porosity and any other defects.
CASTING INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
Inspection of Castings
Pressure tightness of cast components (valves, pumps, and
pipes) is usually determined by sealing the openings in the
casting and pressurizing it with water, oil, or air.

For extreme leak tightness requirements, pressurized helium or

specially scented gases with detectors (sniffers) are used.
The casting is then inspected for leaks while the pressure is
maintained.

Unacceptable or defective castings are re-melted for

reprocessing.

Because of the major economic impact, the types of defects

present in castings and their causes must be investigated
Heat Treatment Process
Cleaning of Castings
• After the metal has solidified and cool in the mold.
• Molds are shake out to remove sand, sand cores and casting from the flask.
• This process of shake out is called the cleaning of castings.

Shake out methods,

– Manually, For small castings
– Mechanically, For large castings
This unit consists of heavy mesh screen fixed to a vibrating frame.
• Generally mechanical shake out are used for large scale work.
• More labor task and more dust produced

Fettling
• The complete process of cleaning of castings is called fettling.
• It involves the removal of the cores, gates, sprues, runners, risers and
chipping of any of unnecessary projections on the surface of the castings.
Cleaning Process
 LECTURE # 9 & 13
Forming and shaping of
plastics and composite
materials
Casting & Extrusion
Processing Of Plastics
The processing of plastics involves operations similar to
those used to form and shape metals

Plastics can be molded, cast, formed, machined and

joined; they can be processed into many shapes with
relative ease.

Plastics melt or cure at relatively low temperatures;

hence, unlike metals, they are easy to handle and require
less energy to process.

Raw material
Pellets, powder, sheet, plate, rod, tubing
Forming and Shaping Processing Of Plastics &
Composites
CASTING of Plastics
Some thermoplastics (e.g., nylons and acrylics) and
thermosetting plastics (e.g., epoxies, phenolics,
polyurethanes, polyester) can be cast.

Typical parts cast are gears, bearings, wheels, thick sheets,

and components requiring resistance to abrasive wear.
Some of the casting process variations are

• Conventional casting
• Centrifugal casting.
• Potting and encapsulation
Conventional casting
In the conventional casting (Fig. a)
of thermoplastics,

A mixture of monomer, catalyst, and

various additives is heated and poured
into the mold.

The part forms after polymerization

takes place at ambient pressure.

Intricate shapes can be produced with flexible molds,

which are then peeled off.
Centrifugal casting
This process is also used with plastics, including reinforced plastics
with short fibers.
Potting and encapsulation
A variation of casting that is important to the electrical and
electronics industry is potting and encapsulation. This
process involves casting the plastic around an electrical
component to embed it in the plastic.

Potting (Fig. b) is done in a housing or case, which is an

integral part of the product.

The terms “potting” and “encapsulation” are often used

interchangeably, but technically, potting refers to a process
where the shell or “pot” that is filled with resin becomes a
part of the finished component.
 Potting and encapsulation

In encapsulation (Fig. c), the component is coated with a

layer of the solidified plastic. In both applications, the plastic
serves as a dielectric (nonconductor). Structural members,
such as hooks and studs, may be partly encapsulated.

In encapsulation, the component and hardened resin are

then removed from the pot to be placed in an assembly.
Extrusion
In extrusion, raw materials are placed into a hopper and fed into the
extruder barrel.

The barrel is equipped with a screw that blends the pellets and conveys them
down the barrel. The internal friction from the mechanical action of the
screw, along with heaters around the extruder's barrel, heats the pellets and
liquefies them.

The screw action also builds up pressure plastic or elastomer is forced

through a die, in a process similar to that of extruding metals.
Extrusion continued…..
Three distinct sections of Screws
1. A feed section that conveys the material from the hopper area into the
central region of the barrel

2. A melt, or transition, section where the heat generated by the shearing of

the plastic and by the heaters causes melting to begin.

3. A pumping section where additional shearing and melting occurs, with

pressure buildup at the die.
Extrusion continued…..
The lengths of these sections can be changed to accommodate
the melting characteristics of different plastics.

The molten plastic or elastomer is forced through a die. The

extruded product is then cooled, either by exposing it to air or
by passing it through a water-filled channel.

Controlling the rate and uniformity of cooling is important to

minimize product shrinkage and distortion
Extrusion Application
Complex shapes with constant cross-section can be extruded with relatively
inexpensive tooling. The extruded product can also be drawn (sized) by a puller
after it has cooled; the extruded product is then coiled or cut into desired
lengths.

Because there is a continuous supply of raw material on the hopper, long

products, such as solid rods, channels, tubing, pipe, window frames,
architectural components, and sheet can be extruded.

Plastic-coated electrical wire, cable, and strips are also extruded and coated by
this process. The wire is fed into the die opening at a controlled rate with the
extruded plastic in order to produce a uniform coating.

Pellets, which are used for other plastics-processing methods are made by
extrusion. Here, the extruded product is a small-diameter rod, which is chopped
into short lengths (pellets) as it is extruded
Extrusion Process Parameters
Process parameters are

• extruder-screw speed,
• barrel-wall temperatures,
• die design,
• cooling and
• drawing speeds should be controlled in order to extrude products having
uniform dimensional accuracy.

To filter out unmelted or congealed/jellied resin, a metal screen

is usually placed just before the die; it is replaced periodically.
Injection Molding
A process in which polymer is heated to a highly plastic state
and forced to flow under high pressure into a mold cavity,
where it solidifies.

The molded part, called a molding ,is then removed from the
cavity.

The production cycle time is typically in the range of 10 to 30

sec, although cycles of 1 min or longer are not uncommon for
large parts.
Complex parts can be produced.
Parts weighing from 50 g up to about 25 kg can be molded. the
such as refrigerator doors and automobile bumpers.
The challenging task is to design and fabricate mold cavity.
 Injection Molding
An injection molding machine has two principal components:
The injection unit is much like an extruder. It
 Plastic injection unit consists of a barrel that is fed from one end by a
hopper containing a supply of plastic pellets.

 Mold clamping unit. Inside the barrel is a screw whose operation

surpasses that of an extruder screw in the
following respect: in addition to turning for
mixing and heating the polymer.
 Injection Molding
A non-return valve mounted near the tip of the screw prevents the
melt from flowing backward along the screw threads.
 Plastic injection unit
Its functions are to
(1) hold the two halves of the mold in proper
 Mold clamping unit. alignment with each other;
(2) keep the mold closed during injection by applying a
clamping force sufficient to resist the injection
force; and
(3) open and close the mold at the appropriate times
in the molding cycle.
 Injection Molding

Typical molding cycle: (1) mold is closed, (2) melt is injected into cavity, (3) screw is
retracted, and (4) mold opens, and part is ejected.
 Blow Molding

Blow molding: (1) extrusion of parison (2) parison is pinched at the top and sealed at the
bottom around a metal blow pin as the two halves of the mold come together; (3) the tube is
inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity; and (4) mold is opened to remove the
solidified part.
 Blow Molding
Blow molding is a molding process in which air pressure is used to
inflate soft plastic inside a mold cavity.
It is an important industrial process for making one-piece hollow
plastic parts with thin walls, such as bottles and similar containers.

Blow molding is accomplished in two steps:

(1) fabrication of a starting tube of molten plastic, called a parison
(2) inflation of the tube to the desired final shape.

Forming the parison is accomplished by either extrusion or

injection molding.
 COMPRESSION MOLDING
Compression molding is widely used molding process for thermosetting
plastics.
The process, consists of
(1) loading a precise amount of molding compound, called the charge,
into the bottom half of a heated mold;
(2) bringing the mold halves together to compress the charge, forcing it
to flow and conform to the shape of the cavity;
(3) heating the charge by means of the hot mold to polymerize and cure
the material into a solidified part; and
(4) opening the mold halves and removing the part from the cavity.
 COMPRESSION MOLDING
The amount of polymer must be precisely controlled to obtain
repeatable consistency in the molded product.
To shorten production cycle time charge must be preheated.
Molds for compression molding are generally simpler than their
injection mold counterparts.
Thus the process itself is generally limited to simpler part geometries
because of the lower flow capabilities of the starting thermosetting
materials.
However, provision must be made for heating the mold, usually
accomplished by electric resistance heating, steam, or hot oil
circulation.
 COMPRESSION MOLDING
Compression molding is performed on phenolics, melamine, urea-
formaldehyde, epoxies, urethanes, and elastomers.
Typical parts produced include: electric plugs and sockets, pot
handles, and dinnerware plates.

Advantages of compression molding

(1) molds that are simpler and less expensive
(2) less scrap
(3)low residual stresses in the molded parts.

A typical disadvantage is
longer cycle times
and therefore lower production rates than injection molding.
 TRANSFER MOLDING
In this process, a thermosetting charge is loaded into a chamber
immediately ahead of the mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure
is then applied to force the softened polymer to flow into the
heated mold where curing occurs.

Cycle in both processes is:(1)charge is loaded into pot, (2) softened polymer is
pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected.
 TRANSFER MOLDING
There are two variants of the process,
(a)Pot transfer molding, in which the charge is injected from a ‘‘pot’’
through a vertical sprue channel into the cavity;
(b) Plunger transfer molding, in which the charge is injected by
means of a plunger from a heated well through lateral
channels into the mold cavity.
 DIFFERENCE B/W COMPRESSION & TRANSFER MOLDING

Transfer molding is different from compression molding in that the

mold is enclosed rather than open to the fill plunger resulting in
higher dimensional tolerances and less environmental impact.
Transfer molding is capable of
molding part shapes that are
more intricate than compression
molding but not as intricate as
injection molding.
COMPRESSION MOLDING

TRANSFER MOLDING