Module 1

PART A
 Contents
• Introduction to Metrology
• Definition
• Objectives of metrology
• Material Standards
• Wavelength Standards
• Classification of standards
• Line and End standards
• Calibration of End bars
• Numerical examples
 What is Metrology
• Metrology is the science of measurement.
• Metrology includes all theoretical and practical aspects
of measurement.
• Metrology is concerned with the establishment,
reproduction, conservation and transfer of units of
measurement & their standards.
• For engineering purposes, metrology is restricted to
measurements of length and angle & quantities which
are expressed in linear or angular terms.
• Measurement is a process of comparing quantitatively an
unknown magnitude with a predefined standard.
 Objectives of Metrology
1. To provide accuracy at minimum cost.

2. Thorough evaluation of newly developed products, and to ensure that

components are within the specified dimensions.

3. To determine the process capabilities.

4. To assess the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are
adequate for their specific measurements.

5. To reduce the cost of inspection & rejections and rework.

6. To standardize measuring methods.

7. To maintain the accuracy of measurements through periodical calibration of the

instruments.

8. To prepare designs for gauges and special inspection fixtures.

 Definition of standards
• A standard is defined as “something that is set up
and established by an authority as rule of the
measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or
quality”.
• For example, a meter is a standard established by
an international organization for measurement of
length. Industry, commerce, international trade in
modern civilization would be impossible without
a good system of standards
 Role of standards
• The role of standards is to achieve uniform,
consistent and repeatable measurements
throughout the world.
• Today our entire industrial economy is based on
the interchangeability of parts the method of
manufacture
• To achieve this, a measuring system adequate to
define the features to the accuracy required &
the standards of sufficient accuracy to support
the measuring system are necessary.
 Standards of Length
• The accurate measurement must be made by comparison
with a standard of known dimension and such a standard is
called “Primary Standard”

• The first accurate standard was made in England and was

known as “Imperial Standard yard”

• Later followed by “International Prototype meter” made in

France
International Prototype Meter
• It is defined as the straight
Definition
line distance, at 0ºC,
between the engraved lines
of pure platinum-iridium
alloy (90% platinum & 10%
iridium) of 1020 mm total
length and having a “tresca”
cross section as shown. 1. The tresca cross section gives greater rigidity for
the amount of material involved and is therefore
• The graduations are on the economic in the use of an expensive metal.
upper surface of the web 2. The platinum-iridium alloy is used because it is
non oxidized and retains good polished surface
which coincides with the
required for engraving good quality lines.
neutral axis of the section.
Imperial Standard yard
 Definition
• An imperial standard yard, is a bronze (82% Cu, 13% tin, 5%
Zinc) bar of 1 inch square section and 38 inches long.
• A round recess, 1 inch away from the two ends is cut at both
ends upto the central or “neutral plane” of the bar.
• Further, a small round recess of (1/10) inch in diameter is
made below the center.
• Two gold plugs of (1/10) inch diameter having engravings are
inserted into these holes so that the lines (engravings) are in
neutral plane.
• The purpose of keeping the gold plugs in line
with the neutral axis is to ensure that the
neutral axis remains unaffected due to
bending, and to protect the gold plugs from
accidental damage.
 Additional Info
• Bronze Yard was the official standard of length
for the United States between 1855 and 1892,
when the US went to metric standards.
• 1 yard = 0.9144 meter.
• The yard is used as the standard unit of field-
length measurement in American, Canadian
and Association football, cricket pitch
dimensions, swimming pools, and in some
countries, golf fairway measurements.
 Disadvantages of Material length
standards
1. Material length standards vary in length over the
years owing to molecular changes in the alloy.
2. The exact replicas of material length standards
were not available for use somewhere else
3. If these standards are accidentally damaged or
destroyed then exact copies could not be made
4. Conversion factors have to be used for changing
over to metric system.
 Light (Optical) Wave Length Standard

• Because of the problems of variation in length of material

length standards, the possibility of using light as a basic unit
to define primary standard has been considered.

• The wavelength of a selected radiation of light and is used as

the basic unit of length.

• Since the wavelength is not a physical one, it need not be

preserved & can be easily reproducible without considerable
error.
 Meter definition
• Meter is now defined as the length of path of light travelled in
vacuum in (1/299792458) second.

• The light used is iodine stabilized helium-neon laser.

• In 1983, the 17th general conference on weights & measures

proposed the use of speed of light as a technically feasible &
practicable definition of meter.
 Advantages of using wave length
standards
1. Length does not change.
2. It can be easily reproduced easily if destroyed.
3. This primary unit is easily accessible to any
physical laboratories.
4. It can be used for making measurements with
much higher accuracy than material standards.
5. Wavelength standard can be reproduced
consistently at any time and at any place
 Subdivision of standards
• The imperial standard yard and the international prototype
meter are master standards & cannot be used for ordinary
purposes

• Thus based upon the accuracy required, the standards are

subdivided into four grades namely
– Primary Standards

– Secondary standards

– Teritiary standards

– Working standards
 Primary standards
• They are material standard preserved under most careful
conditions

• These are not used for direct measurements but are used
once in 10 or 20 years for calibrating secondary standards

• Ex : International Prototype meter, Imperial Standard yard

 Secondary standards
• These are close copies of primary standards w.r.t design,
material & length

• Any error existing in these standards is recorded by

comparison with primary standards after long intervals.

• They are kept at a number of places under great supervision

and serve as reference for tertiary standards

• This also acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction of

primary standards.
 Tertiary standards
• The primary or secondary standards exist as the ultimate
controls for reference at rare intervals.

• Tertiary standards are the reference standards employed by

National Physical laboratory (N.P.L) and are the first standards
to be used for reference in laboratories & workshops.

• They are made as close copies of secondary standards & are

kept as reference for comparison with working standards.
 Working standards
• These standards are similar in design to primary, secondary &
tertiary standards

• Being less in cost and are made of low grade materials, they
are used for general applications in metrology laboratories.
 Line Standard vs End Standard
• When the length being measured is expressed as the distance
between two lines, then it is called “Line Standard”.
• Ex: Measuring scales, Imperial standard yard, International
prototype meter, etc
• When the length being measured is expressed as the distance
between two parallel faces, then it is called “End standard”
• End standards can be made to a very high degree of accuracy
• Ex: Slip gauges, Gap gauges, Ends of micrometer anvils, etc.
 Characteristics of Line Standard
• Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take
the full advantage of this accuracy. Ex: A steel rule can be
read to about ± 0.2 mm of true dimension.
• A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range of
measurements.
• The wear on the leading ends results in “under sizing”
• A scale does not possess a “built in” datum which would
allow easy scale alignment with the axis of measurement;
this again results in “under sizing”
• Scales are subjected to parallax effect (Parallax is the
apparent displacement of an object because of a change in
the observer's point of view), which is a source of both
positive & negative reading errors
• Scales are not convenient for close tolerance length
measurements except in conjunction with microscopes
 Characteristics of End Standard
• End standards are highly accurate and are well suited for
measurements of close tolerances as small as 0.0005 mm.
• They are time consuming in use and prove only one
dimension at a time.
• End standards are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
• End standards have a “built in datum”, because their
measuring faces are flat & parallel and can be positively
located on a datum surface.
• They are not subjected to the parallax effect since their use
depends on “feel”.
• The accuracy of both end & line standards are affected by
temperature change
 Numerical 1
Q) Three 100 mm end bars are measured on a level comparator
by first wringing them together and comparing with a
calibrated 300 mm bar which has a known error of +40µm.
The three end bars together measure 64 µm less than the 300
mm bar. Bar A is 18 µm longer than bar B and 23 µm longer
than bar C. Find the actual length of each bar.
 Numerical 2
Q)Four end bars of basic length 100 mm are to be calibrated
using a standard bar of 400 mm whose actual length is
399.9992 mm. It was also found that lengths of bars B,C & D
in comparison with A are +0.0002 mm, +0.0004 mm and -
0.0001 mm respectively and the length of all the four bars put
together in comparison with the standard bar is +0.0003 mm
longer. Determine the actual lengths of each end bars