UNIT I - BASIC STRUCTURE OF A

COMPUTER SYSTEM

Functional Units
• A computer consists of five functionally
independent main parts: input, memory,
arithmetic and logic, output, and control units.
• The input unit accepts coded information from
human operators using devices such as
keyboards, or from other computers over digital
communication lines.
• The information received is stored in the
computer’s memory, either for later use or to be
processed immediately by the arithmetic and
logic unit.
• The processing steps are specified by a program
that is also stored in the memory.
• Finally, the results are sent back to the outside
world through the output unit.
• All of these actions are coordinated by the
control unit.
• An interconnection network provides the means
for the functional units to exchange information
and coordinate their actions.
• Input and output equipment is often collectively
referred to as the input-output (I/O) unit.
Basic functional units of a computer
• Information as either instructions or data.
• Instructions, or machine instructions.
• A program is a list of instructions which performs a task.
• Programs are stored in the memory.
• The processor fetches the program instructions from the
memory, one after another, and performs the desired
operations.
• Data are numbers and characters that are used as
operands by the instructions.
• Data are also stored in the memory.
• Each instruction, number, or character is encoded as a
string of binary digits called bits.
• Each having one of two possible values, 0 or 1, represented
by the two stable states.
1. Input Unit
• Computers accept coded information through input
units.
• The most common input device is the keyboard.
• Whenever a key is pressed, the corresponding letter or
digit is automatically translated into its corresponding
binary code and transmitted to the processor.
• Many other kinds of input devices are touchpad,
mouse, joystick, and trackball.
• Microphones can be used to capture audio input
which is then sampled and converted into digital codes
for storage and processing.
• Similarly, cameras can be used to capture video input.
• Digital communication facilities, such as the Internet,
can also provide input to a computer from other
computers and database servers.
2. Memory Unit
• The function of the memory unit is to store programs and
data.
• There are two classes of storage, called primary and
secondary.
Primary Memory
• Primary memory, also called main memory, is a fast
memory that operates at electronic speeds.
• Programs must be stored in this memory while they are
being executed.
• Memory consists of a large number of semiconductor
storage cells, each capable of storing one bit of
information.
• They are handled in groups of fixed size called words.
• The number of bits in each word is referred to as the word
length of the computer.
• A memory in which any location can be accessed in a short
and fixed amount of time after specifying its address is
called a random-access memory (RAM).
• The time required to access one word is called the
memory access time.
Cache Memory
• Faster RAM unit, called a cache, is used to hold sections of
a program that are currently being executed, along with
any associated data.
• The purpose of the cache is to facilitate high instruction
execution rates.
• As execution proceeds, instructions are fetched into the
processor chip, and a copy of each is placed in the cache.
• If these instructions are available in the cache, they can be
fetched quickly during the period of repeated use.
Secondary Storage
• Primary memory is essential, it tends to be expensive
and does not retain information when power is
turned off.
• Thus additional, less expensive, permanent secondary
storage is used when large amounts of data and many
programs have to be stored, particularly for
information that is accessed infrequently.
• Access times for secondary storage are longer than for
primary memory.
• Secondary storage devices are magnetic disks, optical
disks (DVD and CD), and flash memory devices.
3.Arithmetic and Logic Unit
• Most computer operations are executed in the
arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of the processor.
• Any arithmetic or logic operation, such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication division, or comparison of
numbers.
• It is initiated by bringing the required operands into
the processor, where the operation is performed by
the ALU.
• When operands are brought into the processor, they
are stored in high-speed storage elements called
registers.
• Each register can store one word of data.
• Access times to registers are even shorter than access
times to the cache unit on the processor chip.
4.Output Unit
• Its function is to send processed results to the outside
world.
• A familiar example of such a device is a printer.
• Most printers employ either photocopying techniques,
as in laser printers, or ink jet streams.
• Such printers may generate output at speeds of 20 or
more pages per minute.
• Graphic displays, provide both an output function,
showing text and graphics, and an input function,
through touch screen capability.
• The dual role of such units is the reason for using the
single name input/output (I/O) unit in many cases.
5. Control Unit
• The memory, arithmetic and logic, and I/O units
store and process information and perform
input and output operations.
• The control unit is effectively the nerve center
that sends control signals to other units and
senses their states.
• Control circuits are responsible for generating the
timing signals that govern the transfers and
determine when a given action is to take place.
• Data transfers between the processor and the
memory are also managed by the control unit
through timing signals.
 The operation of a computer can be
summarized as follows
• The computer accepts information in the form of
programs and data through an input unit and
stores it in the memory.
• Information stored in the memory is fetched
under program control into an arithmetic and
logic unit, where it is processed.
• Processed information leaves the computer
through an output unit.
• All activities in the computer are directed by the
control unit.