Introduction to the Chemical Industry for Technical Assistance Providers

Unit 2: An Overview of
Chemical Process Technology
Outline of this Unit
 An introduction to process technology
 organizing concepts

 “unit operations” view of process technology

 introduction to main process operations

 Environmental considerations of unit ops

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Learning Objectives
 Gain an understanding of the “unit ops” view
of process technology
 Gain familiarity with key pieces of process
equipment
 Understand environmental implications of
process equipment

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Making Sense of Process Technology

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Unit Operations or “Unit ops” Concept
 Each chemical process can be broken
down into a series of steps (operations)
 Individual operations have common
techniques – based on the same scientific
principles
 Underscores the
common features
of diverse processes
 Crosses industry and
process lines

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Behind the Complex Appearance,
Chemical Manufacturing is Simple…
 Raw materials are mixed and/or reacted to
create useful products
 These products are separated in one or more
steps
 Between each step, process streams may be
heated or cooled to optimum temperatures
 In some cases, products may be
mechanically processed to convenient form for
transport and use

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Introduction to Chemical Reactors

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Reactor basics
 A + B  C (+ byproducts) (+ unreacted A & B)
 Every reaction is governed by:
 reaction stoichiometry

 reaction equilibrium (maximum conversion)

 rate of reaction

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Trade-offs in Reactor Design
 Want to maximize…  Want to minimize
 product throughput  byproduct formation

 conversion efficiency  energy use

 selectivity  downstream

 flexibility separations
 process safety  physical complexity

 “controllability”  capital cost

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Some Common Reactor Types
 Batch
 Semi-batch
 Continuous
 Stirred tank

 Packed bed

 Fluidized bed

 Electrolytic “cells”
 Bioreactors

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Batch Reactor
 Reactants added to vessel and products emptied
after completion of reaction
 some reactants may be added continuously
(“semi-batch”)
 often referred to as
“stirred tank reactor”
 Agitator mechanism
 Insulating jacket
 Pipes & valves to
control conditions
 Primarily small-scale
(e.g. specialty chem)
and experimental
processes

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Batch process characteristics
 Not enough product demand to make continuously
 More practical and feasible for multi-step synthesis
 Can reduce overall process complexity
 Allows chemists to maximize yield of desired
compound, which can reduce waste
 Easier to operate, maintain and repair
 Can be adapted to multiple uses – important for
facilities producing many different products (e.g.
specialty)

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Reactors in Series:
A Battery of Stirred Tanks

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Continuous Reactor
 Reactants added and products
removed at constant rate –
constant volume in reactor
 Continuous stirred tank –
“CSTR” equipment
similar to batch reactor
 Pipe (tubular) reactor –
tubing arranged in coil,
jacketed in heat transfer
fluid

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Continuous Reactor Characteristics
 Good for high production – used primarily for
large-scale operations (>20 million pounds/yr
product)
 Usually dedicated to single product
 Requires significant automation and capital
expenditures

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Other Continuous Reactor Types
 Packed bed
 Tubular reactor packed with solid catalyst

particles
 Catalyst increases reaction rate and

conversion
 Fluidized bed
 Combination of continuous stirred-tank

and packed-bed

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Reactors – potential wastes
 Byproducts
 Spent catalysts, salts, filter aids,etc
 Waste (gas, liquid, solid) from reactivation of
catalyst in fluidized bed
 Discharge of fluidizing gas
 Off-spec product
 Cleaning waste
 Vent gases from reactor charging
 Contaminated cooling water

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Heat Transfer Equipment

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Heat Transfer Operations
 Needed to heat or cool reactants and/or products
 control of process conditions
 recovery of process heat
 cooling (“quenching”) of reactants
 to effect phase change

 Can be stand-alone or integrated with other unit

operation
 reactor heat/cooling
 distillation reboiler/condenser

 May use either radiative or convective heat

exchange

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Shell and tube heat exchanger

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Heat Exchange – Potential Wastes
 Thermal degradation in process streams
 Contaminated exchange fluid by process streams
 Liquid waste from blowdown
 Vapor and mist from cooling towers
 Cleaning chemicals from maintenance

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Separations Equipment

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Separations
 Most chemical reactions are not complete
(some unreacted inputs remain)
 Side reactions may result in one or more
unwanted (or desired) byproducts
 Separations needed to obtain purified
product to be used by
customers or
downstream
manufacturers

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Distillation
 Separates liquids having differing boiling
points
 Can separate solutions where all components
are appreciably volatile (fractionation)
 Mixture heated to boiling of most volatile
component (i.e. lowest boiling point),
compound becomes gaseous, then
condensed again in attached vessel.
 Additional compounds can be isolated from
mixture by increasing temperature to
appropriate boiling point(s)

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Distillation Column

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Extraction
 Separation of compounds based on
differential solubilities in fluids such as water
or organic solvents.
 may also be done using supercritical fluids

 requires that at least two distinct liquid

phases be present
 often requires that a second downstream
separation be performed to recover the
extraction solvent

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Example of extraction process-
50/50 acetone/water mixture

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Liquid-Liquid Extraction Unit

Courtesy Pressure Chemical Co.

Pressure Chemical Co.
3419 Smallman Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15201-1997
412 682-5882
www.pressurechemical.com

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Filtration
 Separates solids from liquids or gases
 feedstock preparation

 product or catalyst recovery

 Slurry or mixture of liquid and suspended

particles passed through porous barrier
 Alternative form is centrifugation
 Slurry placed in porous basket, spun rapidly

and outward force pushes liquid through filter

 Fluid reclaimed on outside of basket

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Filtration Process

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Other Separations Processes
 Gas-Liquid
 Distillation (single stage=“flash”)
 Evaporation
 Gas Absorption

 Liquid-Liquid
 Liquid extraction
 Product washing

 Solid-fluid
 Filtration
 Adsorption and ion exchange
 Crystallization
 Drying
 Leaching

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Separations - potential wastes
 Distillation:
 Overhead vapor contamination of contact or non-

contact cooling water, steam jet condensate, etc…

in distillation operations
 Still bottoms

 non-condensable gases

 Filtration:
 Filtrate, filter cake and filter presses from filtration

processes
 Extraction:
 Vapor loss from headspace over extraction

 Liquid or solid non-product phase

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Materials Handling Equipment

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Materials Handling
 Pipes, Valves and Connection
 Pumps, compressors and steam jet ejectors
 Storage tanks, containers, and vessels
 Blending and milling (e.g., mix tanks,
grinders)
 Product preparation
(e.g. Packaging stations)

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Materials Handling – Potential Wastes
 Leaks and spills
 Airborne emissions through controlled vents
(reactor)
 Fugitives around seals, stirrer glands, pump and
valve packing, piping flanges, joints, etc…
 Contaminated exchange fluid from leaks into non-
contact heating or cooling coils/pipes
 Seal flushes

 Maintenance Operations
 Contaminated gas, steam or water from equipment
flushing (cleaning)
 Contaminated gaskets, packing, piping, filters, etc.
 Paint stripping, welding, lubrication, etc…

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Ancillary Equipment and Processes

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Ancillary Equipment and Processes
 Chemical loading and transportation
 Maintenance activities (e.g., equipment
cleaning)
 Waste management
 Vents/flares

 Wastewater treatment/pretreatment

 Hazardous and solid waste management

 Laboratory activities
 Office activities

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Other Sources of Waste
 Chemical loading and transportation
 vent gases
 spills
 Maintenance activities (e.g., equipment cleaning)
 cleaning fluids/solvent
 drained material
 Waste management
 Vents/flares
 Process water treatment/pretreatment
 blowdown
 treatment chemicals
 Laboratory activities
 sample wastes
 lab reagents
 Office activities

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology

Unit Summary
 Despite diversity of processes, underlying
equipment and phenomenology is relatively
simple
 “Unit Ops” paradigm helps provide unifying
framework for understanding process
technology
 Each process unit has characteristic waste
and emission sources/causes
 Emissions stem from both intrinsic and
extrinsic causes

Unit 2: An Overview of Process Technology