Sensors

Overview of
Our Sensors
For Robotics
What makes a machine a robot?
Sensing Planning Acting
information action
about the on the
environment environment
where
is the
truck?
where should I dig?

Why do robots need sensors?
What is the angle of my arm?
 
internal information
What is Sensing ?
• Collect information about the world
• Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical device

that maps an environmental attribute to a
quantitative measurement
– attribute mixtures - often no one to one map
– hidden state in environment
• Each sensor is based on a transduction principle -

conversion of energy from one form to another
• Also known as transducers
Where am I?
localization
Will I hit anything?
obstacle detection
Sensing for specific tasks
Where is the cropline?
Autonomous
harvesting
Where are the forkholes?
Autonomous material handling

Where is the face?
Face detection & tracking

Types of Sensors
• Active
– send signal into environment and measure
interaction of signal w/ environment
– e.g. radar, sonar
• Passive
– record signals already present in environment
– e.g. video cameras
Types of Sensors
• Classification by medium used
– based on electromagnetic radiation of various
wavelengths
– vibrations in a medium
– concentration of chemicals in environment
– by physical contact
Types of Sensors
• Exteroceptive: deal w/ external world
– where is something ?
– how does is look ? (camera, laser
rangefinder)
• Proprioceptive: deal w/ self
– where are my hands ? (encoders, stretch
receptors)
– am I balanced ? (gyroscopes, INS)
Types of Sensors
• Interoceptive
– what is my thirst level ? (biochemical)
– what is my battery charge ? (voltmeter)
• For the most part we’ll ignore these in this

class
Simple Practical Sensors
that we can purchase
 Touch sensors  Bend sensors
 Tilt sensors  Light sensors
 Temperature sensors
 Encoders  Potentiometers
 Laser rangefinders
 Cameras
Touch sensors
a simple electrical flow
switch
force voltage
measurement
Tilt sensors
another simple
switch
gravity
Encoders
 Encoders measure rotational motion.
 They can be used to measure the rotation

of a wheel.
 Servo motors: Used in conjunction with

an electric motor to measure the motor’s
position and, in turn, control its position.
Encoders
Voltage square wave
on on
off off off

1 2 3 4 ...
Important spec:
Number of counts
per revolution
Sample problems
Sensor Analysis
10 cm
16 counts per rev. 10 cm wheel diameter

 How far does the wheel travel for 1 encoder count?
 What happens if we change the wheel diameter?
 How many counts are there per meter of travel?
Sample problems
C = D
Diameter
C = 10 cm
Circumference
10 cm 1 rev 1.96 cm

x =
1 rev 16 counts count
Sample problems
Suppose I want 1.0 cm / count.
What should my wheel diameter be?
1.0 cm 16 counts 16 cm
x =
count 1 rev rev
C = 16 cm
C 16
D =  =  = 5.09 cm
Sample problems
For my 10 cm wheel, how many encoder
counts will there be for 1 meter of travel?
1.96 cm 1 meter 0.0196 m

x =
count 100 cm count
1
= 51 counts/m
0.0196 m/ct
Physics 101
I R (1000 Ohms)
Ohm’s Law
(0.009 Amps)
V=IxR
voltage current resistance
9 = 0.009 x 1000 V
(9 Volts)
Electrical analogy
Voltage
Current
Res
ista
nce
a larger pipe is a smaller pipe is

less resistance more resistance
so more water so less water
Bend sensor
a variable
resistor
resistance changes
as it bends
V=IxR
assuming constant
current, the measured
voltage changes with
resistance
Light sensor
photo-resistor
resistance changes
with light intensity
Temperature sensor
thermal resistor
“thermistor”
resistance changes
with temperature
Potentiometer
another
rotational sensor
R
resistance changes
with position
of dial
Sample problem
Given a 5 V source,
what is the min. and max.
Bend sensor specs: current that is drawn?
100  when straight min = 5 = 5 mA

1000  when bent 1000
V=IxR 5
max = = 50 mA
V 100
I=
R
Sensors Based on EM Spectrum
• Basically used for ranging

• Light sensitive
– eyes, cameras, photocells etc.
• Operating principle
– CCD - charge coupled devices
– photoelectric effect
• IR sensitive - FLIR
– sense heat differences and construct images
– night vision application
EM Spectrum
• Radio and Microwave
– RADAR: Radio Detection and Ranging
– Microwave radar: insensitive to clouds
• Coherent light
– all photons have same phase and wavelength
– LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
– LASER RADAR: LADAR - accurate ranging
The SICK Laser Rangefinder
EM Spectrum
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
– heavy duty magnetic field lines up lines up
atoms in a body
– now expose body to radio signals
– different nuclei resonate at different
frequencies which can be measured leading
to an image
Local Proximity Sensing in EM
• Infrared LEDs
– cheap, active sensing
– usually low resolution - normally used for
presence/absence of obstacles rather than
ranging
– operate over small range
Sensors Based on Sound
• SONAR: Sound Navigation and Ranging
– bounce sound off of something
– measure time for reflection to be heard - gives a range

measurement
– measure change in frequency - gives the relative speed of

the object (Doppler effect)
– bats and dolphins use it with amazing results
– robots use it w/ less than amazing results

Sonar and IR Proxmity
Odor Sensors
• Detection of chemical compounds and
their density in an area
– spectroscopy - mostly lab restricted
– fibre-optic techniques - recently developed
– chemical detection - sniffers aand electronic
noses via “wet chemistry on a chip”
• No major penetration in robotics yet

applications are vast (e.g. mine detection)
Touch Sensors
• Whiskers, bumpers etc.
– mechanical contact leads to
• closing/opening of a switch
• change in resistance of some element
• change in capacitance of some element
• change in spring tension

• ...
Proprioceptive Sensors
• Encoders, Potentiometers
– measure angle of turn via change in resistance or
by counting optical pulses
• Gyroscopes
– measure rate of change of angles
– fiber-optic (newer, better), magnetic (older)
• Compass
– measure which way is north
• GPS: measure location relative to globe
Propriceptive Sensors
Problem: Sensor Choice
• What sensors to employ ?
• E.g. mapping
– ranging - laser, sonar, IR, stereo camera pair
– salient feature detection - doors using color
• Factors
– accuracy, cost, information needed etc etc.
Problem: Sensor
Placement
• Where do you put them ?
• On/off board (e.g. localization using
odometry vs. localization using beacons)
• If onboard - where ?
– Reasonable arrangements - heuristic
– Optimal arrangements - mathematically
rigorous
Questions to students
1. How would you apply Tilt Sensors in a walking robot?
2. List and explain all applications of Encoders
3. Light sensors in a mobile robot. Describe fusion, mapping and
how to control motors.
4. Temperature sensors in robotics.
5. List sensors based on electromagnetic spectrum.
6. Laser rangers
7. Odor sensors in mobile robots. Show one good application. In
each of the above problems think about sensor placement, how
many of them, fusion, mapping and how used to control.
8. Sonars
9. Gyroscopes and compases in a mobile robot.
10. Describe your idea of using a GPS sensor in a mobile robot.
Discuss accuracy, how connected. What application of the robot?

Sensors

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Overview of

Sensing Planning Acting

where should I dig?

• Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical device

• Each sensor is based on a transduction principle -

Will I hit anything?

Where are the forkholes?

Autonomous material handling

Face detection & tracking

• For the most part we’ll ignore these in this

a simple electrical flow

 They can be used to measure the rotation

 Servo motors: Used in conjunction with

off off off

16 counts per rev. 10 cm wheel diameter

10 cm 1 rev 1.96 cm

1.96 cm 1 meter 0.0196 m

a larger pipe is a smaller pipe is

100  when straight min = 5 = 5 mA

• Basically used for ranging

– bounce sound off of something

– measure time for reflection to be heard - gives a range

– measure change in frequency - gives the relative speed of

– bats and dolphins use it with amazing results

– robots use it w/ less than amazing results

• No major penetration in robotics yet

• change in resistance of some element

• change in capacitance of some element

• change in spring tension

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