Chapter 1

Introduction to Statistics

1
Word of Wisdom – Determination

2
Learning Material

3
 Sources of Data collection

Primary data: Data that have been originally collected

and haven’t undergone any sort of statistical treatment.
• Census data
• Diaries
• Data collected by you for your research
DATA COLLECTION METHODS:
• Observation method
• Direct personal investigation
• Indirect interview method
• Questionnaire method

4
 Sources of Data collection(Cont.)

Secondary data: Data that have undergone any sort of statistical

method at least once.
• Books, media, news papers, articles,
• Wikipedia
• Encyclopedia
DATA COLLECTION METHODS:
• Official
• Semi official
• Publications, trade journals and newspapers
• Research organizations

5
Chapter 2

Presentation of Data

6
 INTRODUCTION

Organization of data means reformatting the collected data in more

understandable form.

Methods of organizing data:

• Classification
• Tabulation
• Diagrams and graphs

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 Classification

The process of arranging data into classes or categories according

to some common characteristics present in the data is called
classification
Objectives / Aims of classification :
• To condense the mass of data
• To display the points of similarity and dissimilarity
• Enables to make comparison and draw conclusions
• Prepare the ground for proper presentation of statistical facts.
• Rules of Classification:
• Classes must be mutually exclusive
• Classes must be all inclusive
• Classification procedure must not be so elaborative nor so crude

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 BASES FOR CLASSIFICATION
1: Geographical characteristics: classify data according to
geographical region or location.
• Number and types of schools in different provinces of Pakistan
• Percentage of males and females in different countries
• Number of children aged 3-8 in different cities of Pakistan.
2: Temporal characteristics: classify data according to time.
• National income of Pakistan from 2010-2018
• Daily consumption of milk
• Population of Pakistan over time period 2001-2010
3: Quantitative characteristics: classification of data according to
some characteristics that can be measured.
• Marks of students
• Income
• Height
• weight
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BASES FOR CLASSIFICATION (Cont.)

4: Qualitative characteristics: data are classified on the basis of

same attributes or quality
• Literacy
• Intelligence
• Religion
Three types of classification
One way classification: Data is classified by one characteristic.
The population classified by gender.
Two way classification: Data is classified by two characteristics.
The population classified by gender and literacy.
Manifold classification: Data is classified by several characteristics.
The population classified by gender , literacy and employment status.

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 Tabulation

• Tabulation is systematic arrangement of data in column and

rows.
• Rows are horizontal arrangements
• Columns are vertical arrangements
Types of tables:
There are three types of tables
1. simple or one way table: contain data of one characteristic
only.
• number of adults in different occupations in locality

• Numbers of students by weight

• Population of country classified by religion
11
 Tabulation

2. Double or two way table: contain data of two characteristics

• number of adults in a locality in respect of occupation and
gender

• Numbers of students by weight and gender

• Population of country classified by religion and gender

12
 Tabulation

3. Manifold table: contain data of more than two characteristics

• number of adults in a locality in respect of occupation, gender
and marital status

• Numbers of students by weight, gender and age

• Population of country classified by religion, gender and literacy

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 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
The organization or arrangement of raw data in table form showing
its classes and frequencies.
• Data collected in original form which have not been organized is
called Raw data.
• Arrangement of the data into ascending or descending order is
called Array.
• The number of times a certain value occurs is called Frequency.

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 COMPONENTS OF GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
1. CLASS LIMITS
• The class limits are the lowest and the highest values that can be
included in the class.
• Upper and lower class limit
• There should be no overlapping
• Open ended classes

Frequency distribution of weight of 20 students

Class limits (weight) Frequency
40-44 3
45-49 5
50-54 4
55-59 7
60-64 1

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 COMPONENTS OF GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

2. CLASS BOUNDARIES
• The numbers that separate classes without forming gaps between
them
• Class boundary is the midpoint of the upper class limit of
one class and the lower class limit of the subsequent class.
44-45=1
1/2 = 0.5

Frequency distribution of weight of 20 students

Class
Class limits
limits Class
Class boundaries
boundaries Frequency
Frequency
40-44
40 – 44
40-44 3.95
39.5 –- 44.5 33
45-49
45 – 49
45-49 44.5 – 49.5 55
50-54
50 – 54
50-54 49.5 – 54.5 44
55-59
55 – 59
55-59 54.5 – 59.5 77
60-64
60 – 64
60-64 59.5 – 64.5 11
16
COMPONENTS OF GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Frequency distribution of weight of 20 students

Class limits Class boundaries Frequency Class marks

40-44 39.5-44.5 3 42
45-49 44.5-49.5 5 47
50-54 49.5-54.5 4 52
55-59 54.5-59.5 7 57
60-64 59.5-64.5 1 62

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 COMPONENTS OF GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

4. CLASS INTERVAL/WIDTH
• Class interval is equal to Difference between:
I. The class boundaries 44.5- 39.5=5
II. Two successive lower or upper class limits 45-40=5 or 49-44=5
III. Two successive class marks 47-42=5
• It is represented by c or h
Frequency distribution of weight of 20 students
Class limits Class boundaries Frequency Class marks

40-44 39.5-44.5 3 42
45-49 44.5-49.5 5 47
50-54 49.5-54.5 4 52
55-59 54.5-59.5 7 57
60-64 59.5-64.5 1 62

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Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution

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 Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution (Cont.)

4. Distribute the data in appropriate classes

• Usually done by using Tally Column

5. Total the frequency column

NOTE: These rules are for Continuous Data (Grouped data). In

case of discrete data (Ungrouped data) class boundaries and
limits are unnecessary. But if discrete data is sufficiently large we
treat it as continuous for convenience.

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 Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution (Cont.)

Example
Make the grouped frequency distribution of weight of 40 students in
a class. The measurement is to the nearest kg.

55 70 57 73 55 59 64 72
60 48 58 54 69 51 63 78
75 64 65 57 71 78 76 62
49 66 62 76 61 63 63 76
52 76 71 61 53 56 67 71

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Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution (Cont.)
48 49 51 52 53 54 55 55
56 57 57 58 59 60 61 61
62 62 63 63 63 64 64 65
66 67 69 70 71 71 71 72
73 75 76 76 76 76 78 78

22
 Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution (Cont.)
48 49 51 52 53 54 55 55
56 57 57 58 59 60 61 61
62 62 63 63 63 64 64 65
66 67 69 70 71 71 71 72
73 75 76 76 76 76 78 78

Solution
Frequency distribution of weight of 40 students
Class limits
Class limits Entries
Entries Tally
Tally frequency
frequency

45-49
45 - 48, 49 II 2
50-54 51, 52,53,54 IIII 4
55-59 55,55,56,57,57,58,59 IIII II 7
60-64 60,61, 61,62,62,63,63,63,64, 64 IIII IIII 10
65-69 65,66,67,69 IIII 4
70-74 70,71,71,71,72,73 IIII I 6
75-79 75, 76, 76,76,76,78,78 IIII II 7
Total .. .. 40
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 Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution (Cont.)
Solution
Class boundaries and midpoints
Frequency distribution of weight of 40 students
Class limits Class boundaries Class Marks/ frequency
Midpoints
45-49 44.5-49.5 2

50-54 49.5-54.5 52 4
55-59 54.5-59.5 57 7
60-64 59.5-64.5 62 10
65-69 64.5-69.5 67 4
70-74 69.5-74.5 72 6
75-79 74.5-79.5 77 7
Total .. .. 40

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 Constructing Ungrouped Frequency Distribution (Cont.)

Example
let’s say you survey a number of households and find out how many
pets they own.
The results are 3, 0, 1, 4, 4, 1, 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3
Solution
Arrange in ascending order: 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4
Frequency distribution of number of Pets
Number of pets Tally frequency
0 IIII 5
1 IIII I 6
2 IIII I 6
3 III 3
4 II 2

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 COMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
• Cumulative frequency: It is the sum of the frequency of that
class and all classes below it in a frequency distribution.
• Cumulative frequency of last class is sum of all frequencies in the
distribution.
• Less than cumulative frequency: frequencies are cumulated
from lowest to highest value.
• More than cumulative frequency: frequencies are cumulated
from highest to lowest value.
RELATIVE FREQUENCY
• Frequency of a class divided by total frequency is called Relative
frequency
• Sum of Relative frequencies always add up to one.
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY
• Frequency of class is expressed as percentage
• Sum of percentage frequencies always add up to 100.
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 STEM and LEAF PLOT
• Represents quantitative data by separating each value into two
parts:
1. the stem (the first digit or digits)
2. And leaf (usually the last digit or digits)
• Stem and leaf are separated by a vertical line
• Here is a set of data on showing the test scores on the last quiz.
• 56, 78, 82, 82, 90, 94, 93, 37, 67, 67, 69, 74, 77, 92, 40, 81, 83,
84, 77, 72, 100, 32.
• 32, 37, 40, 56, 67, 67, 69, 72, 74, 77, 77, 78, 81, 82, 82, 83, 84,
90, 92, 93, 94, 100.

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 DIAGRAMS and GRAPHICAL REPREESENTATION
• Graphs are more suitable to present continuous data while
discrete data are presented by Diagrams
• Diagrams includes following charts:
 Simple bar chart
 Multiple bar chart
 Component bar chart
 Pie chart
 Rectangles and subdivided rectangles
 Pictograms
 Pei diagrams/charts
 Profit and loss chart
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 Simple Bar Chart
• It consists of horizontal or vertical bars of equal width and
lengths proportional to values they represent
EXAMPLE: Draw a simple bar chart to represent population of 5
Asian countries. population
1200

1000

Country population 800

China 1088 600

India 816 400

Indonesia 175
200
Japan 123
0
Pakistan 106 China India Indonesia Japan Pakistan
population

29
 Multiple Bar Chart
• Shows two or more characteristics of a variable in the form of
grouped data.
• Each bar is shaded differently for identification.
EXAMPLE: Draw a multiple bar chart to show export and import
population of Pakistan from 1982-1987
Chart Title
years Export Import 12000

1982 3444 6815 10000

8000
1983 3733 7671
6000
1984 3798 8778
4000
1985 4959 9095 2000
1986 6335 9243 0
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987
1987 7844 11138
Export Import

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 Component Bar Chart
• A bar is divided into two or more sections proportional in size to
components.
EXAMPLE: Draw a component bar chart of students enrollment.

Chart Title
70

60
Classes Male Female Total
50
BBA 33 32 65
40
MBA 32 18 50
30
MS/PHD 21 14 35
20

10

0
BBA MBA MS/PHD
Male Female

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 Rectangles and Subdivide Rectangles

• To represent a quantity by rectangle both length and width

are used.
• subdivided rectangles are made where quantities along with
their components are to be compared
• Change each component into percentage of corresponding
total.
• Draw one rectangle for each total taking equal lengths (100
units) and widths proportional to total.
• Divide each rectangle in parts or sections.
• Each section represent percentage size of component.

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 Rectangles and Subdivide Rectangles

Family A Family B
Items Of Expenditures Actual Exp. Percentage Actual Exp. Percentage
Food 24 60 60 50
Clothing 4 10 14 11.7
House Rent 4 10 16 13.3
Education 3 7.5 6 5
Litigation 2 5 10 8.3
Conventional needs 1 2.5 6 5
Miscellaneous 2 5 8 6.7
Total 40 100 120 100

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 Pictograms

• Portray statistical data by means of pictures.

• Unit value of data represent symbol of picture.
• Larger quantities are represented by larger number of
pictures not by larger symbol
• A quantity smaller than unit is represented by a part of
picture.
EXAMPLE:
Table shows number of people in a certain textile mill.
Represent data by pictogram.

year 1950 1955 1960 1965

Number of employees 2004 2990 4240 5380

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 Pie diagrams/ chart

items Food Clothing House Rent Fuel & light Misc total
expenditure 50 30 20 15 35 150

Angle 120 72 48 36 84 360

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 Profit and Loss chart
• It is percentage component bar chart
• Profits are shown above the normal base line.
• Losses are shown below the base line.
• Since bars are extended from zero line to show loses so we
start from top.
• For the following data of costs, proceeds, profits and losses
construct a profit and loss chart.

1960 1970
Particulars
Actual
Particulars Percentage
1960 Actual
1970 Percentage
(i)Material
(i)Material 10 Rs 10 Rs 50 16
16 64
(ii)Wages(ii)Wages 6 6 30 88 32
(iii)Polishing
(iii)Polishing 2 2 10 44 16
Total costTotal cost 18 18 90 28
28 112
ProceedsProceeds 20 20 .. 25
25 ..
Profit(+)/loss(-)
Profit(+)/loss(-)+2 +2 10 -3-3 -12
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 Assignment
Question 1: The waist measurements in inches of 40 children
age 5-10 years are given below group these data into frequency
distribution taking 1 as class interval size. (Note: (1) class limit
should start from 13.5 (2) class limits, tally marks, frequency,
class boundaries, class marks, cumulative frequency, relative
frequency and cumulative percentage frequency)

19.3 16.9 17.9 17.3 15.8 18.5 17.1 19.5

20.4 18.7 22.3 17.5 18.4 13.9 18.8 16.8

14.9 19.5 19.4 16.3 17.8 23.4 17.4 19

21.8 18.8 18.5 18.2 16.1 18.3 17.5 17.4

18.6 16.9 16.5 18.2 20.5 20.5 17.5 19.1

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Question 2: Using data given in the table construct following
diagrams:
1. Simple Bar chart use age and total column only ignore male and female
column
2. Multiple bar chart
3. Component bar chart
4. Pictogram (use age and total column only ignore male and female
column )
5. Pie chart (use age and total column only ignore male and female column

Extract from Pakistan demographics profile 2013 (all figures in millions)

Age male female total
0-14 30 20 50
15-24 21 25 46
25-54 34 31 65
55-64 20 10 30
65+ 10 5 15

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