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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting

 Contents
• Topics:
• Process Control Terminology
• Control Principles
• Basic Control Loop
• Advance Control Loop
• Control Algorithm
• Control System

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Process Control Terminology
What is a PROCESS ?
Any operation or sequence of operations involving a
change in the substance being treated.
Examples:
• A change of energy state - hot to cold, liquid to
gas
• A change of composition - a chemical reaction
• A change of dimension - grinding coal

Types of PROCESS VARIABLE:

Pressure Specific Gravity of liquid
Flow Density
Level Mass
Temperature Conductivity
Liquid Interface Composition
Moles

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Process Control Terminology
What is a CLOSED LOOP ?

A combination of instruments or functions that are

interconnected to measure and control a process
variable with feedback.

input output
PROCESS

FINALCONTROL A System MEASUREMENT

ELEMENT with
Feedback

CONTROLLER

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Process Control Terminology
What is a TRANSDUCER

• A device that registers a non-electrical parameter (eg. process

variable) and outputs a corresponding useable electrical signal.
– Pressure to Capacitance
– Pressure to Resistance or mV
– Temperature to Resistance
– Temperature to mV
• Example:
– Capacitance pressure sensor module
– Piezo-resistive pressure sensor module
– RTD
– Thermocouple

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Process Control Terminology
What is a TRANSMITTER

• A device that will translate the transducers interpretation of

the measured variable into a standard transmission signal.
– 3 - 15 psi pneumatic signal
– 4-20 mA dc electrical signal
– 1-5 V dc electrical signal

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Process Control Terminology
ADVANTAGE OF 4-20mA CURRENT SIGNAL

• Lower installation cost

– simple, twisted pair wiring
• Better noise immunity
– current vs. voltage
• Insensitive to wire resistance
– current vs. voltage
• Better suited for hazardous locations
– intrinsic safety

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Process Control Terminology
What is a CONTROLLER ?

• Used to keep a process variable at a desired value

(set point).
– Closed loop vs. Open loop control
• Difference: Open loop control has no feedback
– Control Modes
• ON/OFF (Binary)
• Proportional (P)
• Proportional-plus-Integral (PI)
• Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative (PID)

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Process Control Terminology
• What is a SIGNAL ?
An event that conveys data from one point to another.

• What is an INDICATOR ?
An instrument which visually shows the value of the variable.

• What is a RECORDER ?
An instrument that makes and displays a continuous graphic, acoustic or magnetic record
of a measured variable.

• What is a DCS ?
Distributed Control System consisting of functional integrated subsystems. The
subsystems are connected by a communication linkage (eg) data bus,data highway.

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Process Control Terminology
What is a FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT?

• The last control element in the process control loop

that manipulates the process variable.
– Control Valves
» modulates flow rate
» operated by actuator
– Louvers and Dampers
» operated by pneumatic actuators
– Variable Speed Drives
» operated by electronic control signals
 4 - 20 mA

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Control Principle

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Control Principle
FEED PRODUCT
PROCESS

CORRECTING MEASURING
UNIT UNIT

PV
O/P CONTROLLING
UNIT SP OPERATOR

Control theory can be encapsulated as the matching of a

measured variable (PV) to the plant requirement (SP).
A controller implements a Control Algorithm so that an output
signal (O/P) activates a correcting unit. The ratio of output signal
(O) to input signals (I) is Gain (K).
1 100 I
Proportional band K
% = % = O
x 100%
Gain
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Control Principle
• Process Variable (PV)
– the actual measurement of the state of the process
• Set Point (SP)
– the desired state of the process variable
• Control Algorithm
– the predefined response of the controller to PV-SP
• Controller Output (O/P)
– a signal determined by the control algorithm
• Offset
– the value of PV-SP when the system is in equilibrium
• Direct Acting Controllers
– as the value of the measured variable increases, the output of the
controller increases.
• Reverse Acting Controllers
– as the value of the measured variable increases, the output of the
controller decreases.

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Principle
Inherent Regulation

• A plant possesses inherent regulation

when, in the absence of a controller,
equilibrium is re-established after a
disturbance.
– For example, a tank with constant inflow
is in equilibrium.
– The outflow valve is then opened a little
more.
– The outflow pressure decreases as the
tank level falls until inflow again equals
outflow.
– Manipulation of the outflow valve result
in different, unique equilibrium states.

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Principle
Instrument Symbols

Example Instruments

TT Temperature Transmitter I/P Current-to-Pressure

Transducer
FIC Flow Indicating Controller PT Pressure Transmitter

TE Temperature Element P/P Pressure-to-Pressure

(Thermocouple, RTD) Transducer

Instrument Location
Local Panel Front Panel Rear,
Mounting Mounting or Rack Mounting

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Principle
Instrument Symbols

Letter Designations
First Letter Succeeding Letters
Measured or Modifier Readout or Output
Initiating Passive Function
Variable Function
A Analysis Alarm
C User's Choice Control
D User's Choice Differential
F Flow Rate Ratio
(Fraction)
I Current Indicate
(Electrical)
L Level Light
P Pressure, Point (Test
Vacuum Connection)
Q Quantity Integrate,
Totalize
R Radiation Record
T Temperature Transmit
V Vibration Valve, Damper,
Louver
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Control Principle
Signal Types (ISA)

Connection to Process,
Instrument Supply,
or Direct Mechanical Link

Pneumatic Signal

Electric Signal

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Control Principle
Controller Types

• Pneumatic
• Analog
• Digital
– Single Loop Controllers
– Distributed Control System
– Fieldbus Control System

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Basic Control Loop
Pressure Control Loop

I/P PIC • Pressure Loop Issues:

– May be a Fast Process
» Liquid
» Small Volume
– May Require Fast Equipment

PT

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Basic Control Loop
Temperature Control Loop

• Temperature Loop Issues:

– Fluid response slowly to change in input heat
– Requires advanced control strategies
» Feedforward Control

Load
Disturbance
TIC

Cold
Water
I/P

TT
Steam

Hot
Water 20
Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Basic Control Loop
Flow Control Loop

Flow Loop Issues:

– May be a Very Fast Process
» “Noise” in Measurement Signal
• May Require Filtering
» May Require Fast-Responding Equipment
– Typically Requires Temperature Compensation

I/P FIC

FT TT

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Basic Control Loop
Level Control Loop (Inflow)

I/P LIC

• Level Loop Issues:

– Control At Inflow or Outflow
– Non-Self Regulating

LT

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Basic Control Loop
Level Control Loop (Outflow)

LIC I/P

LT

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Advance Control Loop
What is CASCADE CONTROL ?

Consist of one controller (primary, or master) controlling the variable that is to be kept
at a constant value, and a second controller (secondary, or slave) controlling another
variable that can cause fluctuations in the first variable. The primary controller positions
the set point of the secondary, and it, in turn, manipulates the control valve.

Primary Secondary
Multi-Variable Control
controller controller
r1 r2 m
FBC FBC Disturbance

Secondary Primary
c1 c2 Process Process

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Advance Control Loop
Example of CASCADE CONTROL

• The temperature of the liquid in the vessel is controlled by

regulating the steam pressure in the jacket around the vessel.

Temperature Temperature
transmitter Measurement
controller

IN Output

Measurement Pressure
Jacket controller
Pressure
transmitter

Valve
OUT Steam

SINGLE-LOOP CONTROL Cascade Control Loop

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Advance Control Loop
Implementing Cascade Control

Cold
Steam Water
Header TIC
RSP
_ FC

I/P
Major Load B:
Steam Header
Pressure TT
FT
Steam

Major Load A:
Hot Outflow Rate
Water (Demand)
Condensate

Load B Load A
(Header Pressure) (Demand)

SP RSP Steam Flow Temperature

TIC FC
Process Process
_ _
FT

TT
cascade2 26
Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Advance Control Loop
What is FEED FORWARD CONTROL ?

• Applies to a system in which a balance between supply and demand is

achieved by measuring both demand potential and demand load and
using this data to govern supply. It gives a smoother and stable control
than feedback control.

• Multi-Variable Control Steam

Feedwater
FT
FT LT
Flow Boiler
Feed
controller SP
PV O/P Level forward
indicating
controller
SP
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Advance Control Loop
Implementing Feedforward Control

Feedforward Summing
Equations Junction

FFD
Feedforward
Loop
Feedback
Loop
FT
TIC

Cold
Water
I/P

TT
Steam

Hot
Water
feedfwd2
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Figure 1-34. Feedforward Plus Feedback Trim in a Temperature Process
 Advance Control Loop
What is RATIO CONTROL ?

• An uncontrolled flow determines a second flow so that a desired ratio is

maintained between them.
• The ratio factor is set by a ratio relay or multiplying unit which would be
located between the wild flow transmitter and the flow controller set point.
Flow B is controlled in a preset ratio to flow A.

Multi-Variable Control
Controlled Controlled
flow, B flow, B

Remote - Ratio
Wild Ratio Output = A x ratio Wild flow, A
set controller
relay
flow, A SP controller SP

Output Output
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Advance Control Loop
Example of RATIO CONTROL

Pickling Process
Acid supply

Set
Manual Measurement
FT Flow FC
water transmitter
regulator
Magnetic
flowmeter

Water Flow A Flow B

Control valve

Pickle tank

Other Application : Fuel/air ratio control system on

combustion equipment, e.g. boilers.
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Advance Control Loop
What is SELECTIVE CONTROL ?

• The more important condition between two or more candidates is

selected. They are used mainly to provide protection to a piece of
equipment which could suffer damage as a result of abnormal operating
conditions.

•
Multi-Variable Control

Low select
RS O/P
O/P Speed
Control PIC
PIC
O/P PV
PV
Pump

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Control Algorithm

• On/Off

• Multi-step

• Proportional

• Integral

• Derivative

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 Control Algorithm
On-Off Control

• It is a two-position control, merely a switch arranged to be off

(or on as required) when the error is positive and on (or off as
required) when the error is negative. Ex.. Oven & Alarm control.

Measured
variable differential

Controller
output

Time

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Control Algorithm
Multi-Step Action

• A controller action that may initiate more than two positioning of

the control valve with respect to the respective predetermined input
values.
8
5
8
0
7
5

Time

4
3
2
1

Time
Multi-step action
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Algorithm
Proportional Action (P)

• It is the basis for the 3-mode controller. The controller output

(O/P) is proportional to the difference between Process Variable (PV)
and the Set Point (SP).
•
Process
Load
SP
PV

Controller
Output

Open-loop response of proportional mode

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Algorithm
Proportional Action (P)
O/P %
100
The Algorithm is :

- (PV - SP) 
50
O/P = + Constant
Proportional
Band
(Constant is normally 50% ) S - PV
Tan  = Gain = 100 / Proportional Band

• When a disturbance alters the process away from the set-point, the
controller acts to restore initial conditions. In equilibrium, offset (PV-SP =
constant) results.
PV
Many controllers have a ‘manual
Time
reset’. This enables the operators to
manipulate the ‘constant’ term of the Recovery time Offset
algorithm to eliminate offset. SP

Time
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Algorithm
Low Proportional Gain: (Closed Loop)

100

90

80 SP

70 E0 E1 E2 E3 E4

60
PV
% 50

40
Output
30

20

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
prop Time

Figure 9-2. Low Proportional Gain Response in a Closed Loop 37

Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Algorithm
High Proportional Gain: (Closed Loop)

100

90
PV
80 SP
70

60

% 50

40

30

20
Output
10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
higain
Time

Figure 9-3. High Proportional Gain Response in a Closed Loop 38

Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Control Algorithm
Integral Action (I)

• Whilst PV  SP, the controller operates to restore equality.

• As long as the measurement remains at the set point, there is no change
in the output due to the integral mode in the controller.
• The output of the controller changes at a rate proportional to the offset.
The integral time gives indication of the strength of this action. It is the time
taken for integral action to counter the ‘offset’ induced by Proportional Action
alone.

Set
% Measurement
Set Point
Point RT
RT = Reset Time min./rpt
a{
% Output b{ a=b
Open-loop
Time response Time

Integral mode Proportional plus Integral mode

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Algorithm
Integral Action: (Closed Loop)

100

90

80 SP

70

60
PV
% 50

40 Proportional
Plus Integral
30 Output

20

10 Proportional
Response

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time

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 Control Algorithm
Derivative Action (D)

• As the PV changes, the controller resists the change.

• The controllers output is proportional to the rate at which the
difference between the measured and desired value changes.
• The derivative time is an indication of this action. It is the time that
the open-loop P+D response is ahead of the response due to P only.

Set
%
Set Point
Measurement
Point DT = Derivative Time (min)
DT
% Output Proportional only
(I/D)
Open-loop
Time
Time response
Proportional + Derivative

Derivative mode Proportional plus Derivative mode

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Control Algorithm
PID Action: (Closed Loop)

100

90

80 SP

70

60
PV PID Output
% 50

40

30

20

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Algorithm
PID Control

80
Measurement
% Scale Range

60
A
40

20

Proportional
Controller Output
Valve Position

Proportional +
Integral
or

Proportional + Integral + Derivative

Time - minutes
Open-loop response of three-mode controller

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Control Algorithm
P & ID Piping & Instrumentation Drawing

Compressed Air Pipe

Converter
PID
I/P PIC Controller
Pneumatic
Control
Valve PT Pressure
Transmitter
P
Process Vessel

Fluid Pump
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Control Algorithm
Controller Selection

Start
Step change in
valve travel

Use Can offset be Yes Use

PID tolerated ? P-only

No Reaction curve
63.2%
of measured
Yes
variable

Is dead time No Is noise Yes Use C

excessive ? present ? P+I
Capacity
Dead Time
No Time (sec)

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control Algorithm
Controller Adjustment

Period
Controlled Variable

P-only

PID

PI

Time
Control loop Proportional band Time constant Derivative
Flow High (250%) Fast (1 to 15 sec) Never
Level Low Capacity dependent Rarely
Temperature Low Capacity dependent Usually
Analytical High Usually slow Sometimes
Pressure Low Usually fast Sometimes
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Control System
Adaptive Control
• An automatic control scheme in which the controller is programmed
to evaluate its own effectiveness and modify its own control
parameters to respond to dynamic conditions occurring in or to the
process which affect the controlled variables.
•

Ex) Digital Controller

- Sensors are run to the computer’s input.
- Servomechanisms are connected to the computer’s output.
- Future changes don’t require re-wiring.
- Changing control functions (P,I, and D) and configurations
(between cascade mode and feedforward mode) will be made on the computer’s
program and not necessarily to any hardware.

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control System
Supervisory Control
• A control strategy where the process control computer
performs system control calculations and provides its output
to the setpoints inputs of conventional analog controllers.
These analog controllers actually control the process
actuators, not the main-control computer.
S

SP1 Controller A
Supervisory
M.I.S
Control S

SP2 Controller A

SP3
Controller A
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Control System
Today’s DCS System

Coax

I/O Rack Controller

Tools for Process
Analysis, Diagnostics.

HW and
Software Sampled
Filtering Value

Measurement I/O Rack Controller Tools for Process

Analysis, Diagnostics.
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control System
What is a FIELDBUS ?

Definition...
A digital, two-way, multi-drop communication link among intelligent field
devices and automation systems.

Fieldbus (Only Digital Signals)

T
Control room
operator stations
L

Control systems
(DCS or PLC)
F

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
 Control System
Fieldbus Control System

Work Systems
Total of approximately 35,000 devices
(due to address limits) .

Gateway HSE
Controller
124
H2 Bridge
H1 Devices
H1
H1
H1
H1

32 Devices
H1 - 31.25 Kbit/s H1
HSE - 100 M bit/s 32
(Fast Ethernet) Devices
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Control System
Proprietary Bus

ADVANCED CONTROL OPTIMIZATION

PID PID

AI AI AO
DCS
4 -20 mA
4 -20 mA 4 -20 mA

• Control in the control room

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Control System
Foundation Fieldbus Devices

Delta V
Built-In Control
Function Anywhere
Blocks
Valve
Transmitter
FIELDVUE
BKCAL_IN BKCAL_OUT
OUT CAS_IN
OUT IN
AI PID AO

• Control in the field with fieldbus

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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting
Look at how the CONTROL migrate
Central Control Local Control Control in the
Loop DCS
Loop field
FCS
DDC
Digital
PID
PID Digital

Analog Analog
PID PID

Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 1 Loop 2

Control in the
device itself
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Effectives Instrumentation Analysis Operation, Maintenance, And Troubleshooting