NETWORKING

and
Open Source Concepts
An interconnected collection of
autonomous computers is called
Computer Network. It means two
computers are said to be interconnected
if they are capable of exchanging the
information.
Need for Networking
Sharing of Hardware , Software
Resources and the database.
Reliability
To enable different computers to
communicate
To reduce cost of transfer of
data
Disadvantages of Network

Protection from Viruses

Central dependency on
software and files
System becomes more
complex.
 Evolution of Networking
1. ARPANET : This was the first
network which was planted in 1969. It
means Advanced Research Projects
Agency NETwork. Its aim was to connect
different computers of different
universities and U.S. defense to
exchange messages and data. This
network was expanded very soon by the
students , scientists , engineers etc. for
their work. The users were able to share
their interests.
2. INTERNET : It is a worldwide
network of Computer networks. It was
developed in 1990 by different
companies to allow the users to connect
one network to the other to
communicate. It is a super network. It
uses a set of protocols called TCP/IP.
3. INTERSPACE : It refers to a vision
of what the internet will become in
future. It is a client/server software
program that allows multiple users to
communicate online with real time audio ,
video and text in dynamic 3D
environment.
 Basic Terminology
Nodes or Server
Workstations A Computer
The different which facilitates
terminals or the sharing of
computers which data , software
are attached to a and hardware
network and are resources like
able to share the Printer , Modem
resources are etc. on the
called nodes or network is called
workstations. a Server.
 Servers are of two types
Dedicated Server

It is a computer which can only be used as a

server not as a node . It means its only job is to
provide facilities of data , software , hardware
resources etc. to the nodes. This type of server
is generally used for very big and large
networks. The networks using which use this
type of server is called Master-Slave
networks.
Non - Dedicated Servers

In a network a workstation which can

double up as a server is called a non-
dedicated Server . It means it can
be used as a server and as a node.
This type of server is generally used
in small networks . The small
networks using such a server are
called Peer-to-Peer Networks.
Transmission Media or Communication Channels

They refer to the connecting cables that

connect two or more workstations .

Types of Communication Channels

1. Guided media : The medium of
communication which includes the cables.
The following are the important types of
cables :
( a ) Twisted Pair Cable : This is the most common form
of wiring in data communication applications . It is
consisted of two identical wires wrapped together.

Its Advantages :
(1)It is physically flexible and easy to install.
(2)It is inexpensive and can be connected easily.

Its Disadvantages :
(1)It is incapable to carry a signal over long distances
without the use of repeaters.
(2)Its bandwidth is very low and so can not be used for
broadband applications.
( b ) Coaxial Cable : This type of cable is consisted of a
solid wire core surrounds by one or more wire shields
each separated by some insulating material . The inner
core carries the signal and shield provides the ground.
It has better transmission characteristics than twisted
pair cable.

Its Advantages :
(1) Its bandwidth is higher than the twisted pair cable.
(2) It can be used for broadband transmission. It means
several channels can be transmitted simultaneously.

Its Disadvantages :
(1) It is more expensive than twisted pair cable .
(2) It is not compatible with twisted pair cable .
( c ) Optical Fibers : It is the fastest wired medium
of communication which is consisted of glass like
material which carry light form source to the
destination.
Its Advantages :
(1)Its bandwidth is very high and so can be used for
broadband transmissions where several channels
are handled in parallel.
(2)It can be used for broadband transmission. It
means several channels can be transmitted
simultaneously.
Its Disadvantages :
(1)It is more expensive than other type of cables .
(2)It sometimes can not be installed easily.
2. Unguided media : The
medium of
communication which
includes the waves
through air ( vacuum ) .
( a ) Infrared : This medium of
transmission uses infrared light to
send the data. It can be used to
transmit the data through the air and
can propagate throughout a room
but it can not penetrate walls. This
transmission is very common in
hand held devices. It is a very
secure medium of transmission.
( b ) Micro Wave : These are the fastest signals which are used
to transmit data and are similar to the TV signals. These are
used for long distances. It is consisted of a transmitter , receiver
and the atmosphere. The higher the tower , the greater the
range. These signals pass through the atmosphere and they
travel from one antenna to the other. It is very cheap and can be
used for very long distances.

Its Advantages :
(1) It has the ability to communicate over longer distances.
(2) It is cheaper than laying the cables.

Its Disadvantages :
(1) Bandwidth allocation is very limited in microwave.
(2) Its design and maintenance cost is very high.
( c ) Radio Wave/Link : These are the signals which
are used to transmit data at radio frequencies. The
transmitter takes messages and encodes it and
transmit it into radio waves which is received by
receiver. It is very cheap and needs less repairing .
Its Advantages :
(1)It provides a more easy and convenient way of
communication with a better mobility.
(2)It is cheaper than laying the cables.
Its Disadvantages :
(1)Sometimes it is not very reliable for
communication.
(2)It is susceptible to weather conditions like rain
etc.
( d ) Satellites : In this transmission the earth station
communicate to send and receive the data using
transponders. In this communication the earth stations
are consisted of a satellite dish which functions as an
antenna and communication equipment to transmit and
receive data from the satellites.

Its Advantage :
The area coverage for the transmission is very large.

Its Disadvantages :
(1) It is available with high investment cost and with
significant probability of failure.
(2) It has a high atmospheric loss above a fixed frequency.
 TYPES OF NETWORK
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK( PAN )

 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN )

 METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

(MAN)

 WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN )

PERSONAL AREA NETWORK ( PAN )
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer
network used for communication among
computerized devices, including telephones and
personal digital assistance . PANs can be used
for communication among the personal devices
themselves (intrapersonal communication), or
for connecting to a higher level network and the
Internet. he reach of a WPAN varies from a
few cm. to a few meters.
e.g. Connecting 2 cell phones using Bluetooth ,
Connecting a smart phone to a smart watch.
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK ( PAN )
 LOCAL AREA NETWORK ( LAN )
It is a small computer network that are confined to a
localized area like an office , a building etc. Only a
definite number of computers can be connected in this
network to share the resources . Its range can be up to
a few Kilometers. Its main features are
• Total diameter not more than 5 km
• Rate of flow of data communication can be
more than 100 Mbps
• Owned by single organization
• Low Error Rates
• Provides user access to several resources like
printers, Modem etc.
Example: Connecting computers of a school, Connecting
computers of an office or an internet cafe.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK ( LAN )
Metropolitan Area Network ( MAN )
This network is larger in size than
LAN and it spreads over a city. It
means a very large number of
computers can be connected in this
in a city or from one city to the
other.

Example : The Cable TV networks

which are spread over a city.
Metropolitan Area Network ( MAN )
 WIDE AREA NETWORK ( WAN )
This network spreads across the countries and
it is a group of computers that are separated
by very large distances. The computers of even
one continent can be connected to the other
continent.
Its main features are :
• Spans large geographical area, often a country
or continent
• Helps in E-Mailing and accessing Internet
• Data can be received from or sent to remote
areas with the help of satellite with less cost
WIDE AREA NETWORK ( WAN )
 LAN WAN
• Diameter of not • Span entire countries
more than a few kms.
• Data transfer rate is • Data transfer rate is
very high not so high
• Complete ownership • Owned by multiple
be a single organizations
organization
• Very low error rates • Comparatively higher
error rates.
 Network Topologies
The way of interconnection of the nodes in a network is called the
Topology.
The different factors on which selection of a topology depends are :

( a ) Cost : A Network of computers can reduce the cost to a large

extent.
( b ) Reliability : It is more reliable to work in a Computer Network .
Hence if a node fails to work the data can be achieved from some
other nodes.
( c ) Flexibility : The topology should allow for easy reconfiguration
of the network.

The different topologies are :

 Star Topology
It is consisted of a central node to which all other nodes are
connected by a single path. Its different advantages and
disadvantages are :
Advantages :
( 1 ) One Device per connection : In this topology failure of a
single connection typically involves disconnecting one node
from an otherwise fully functional network.
( 2 ) Simple Access protocols : In this access protocols are very
simple.
Disadvantages :
( 1 ) Long Cable Length : This topology uses a very long cable as
each node id directly connected to the centre.
( 2 ) Central Dependency : If the central node fails , the entire
network stops working.
WS1 WS3

Server

WS2 WS4
 Bus or Linear Topology
It is consisted of a single length of the transmission medium
onto which the various nodes are attached . Its different
advantages and disadvantages are :
Advantages :
( 1 ) Short Cable Length : There is a single common data path
connecting all nodes , so this topology uses a very short cable .
( 2 ) Easy to Expand : In this topology additional nodes can be
connected at any point along its length.
Disadvantages :
( 1 ) Fault detection : In this topology it is very difficult to detect
a faulty node .
( 2 ) Nodes must be intelligent : All the nodes working in this
topology must be intelligent.
Server WS1 WS2

WS3 Printer WS4

 Tree Topology
A variation of bus topology is the tree topology. The shape of
the network is just like an inverted tree with the central root
branching and sub-branching to the extremities of the
network.
Advantages :
( 1 ) Easy to Expand : It is very easy expand this topology . It
means nodes can be connected easily.
( 2 ) Fault isolation is easy : It is easy to find the faulty node in
this topology.
Disadvantages :
( 1 ) Dependency on root computer : The total dependence is on the root
computer . If it fails to work , the entire network will stop working.
( 2 ) Complex Access Protocols : The protocols designed for this topology are
generally very complex.
 Server

WS1 WS3

WS2 WS4 WS5 WS6

 Network Switching Techniques
( 1 ) Circuit Switching : In this technique first of all the
complete physical connection between two computers is established
and then data is transmitted from the source computer to the
destination computer. Its important property is to set up an end-to-
end connection between computer before any data can be sent.
( 2 ) Message Switching : In this technique the source
computer sends data or the message to the switching office first
which stores the data. It then looks for a free link to another
switching office and then sends the data to this office. Hence it is
also known as store and forward.
( 3 ) Packet Switching : In message switching there is no limit
on block size but in Packet switching a fixed size of packet which
can be transmitted across the network is specified. In this all the
packets of fixed size are stored in the main memory. It improves the
performance as the access time is reduced.
 MODEM
( MOdulation/DEModulation )
The device which is used to connect and
communicate with computers with the help of
telephonic lines . It converts digital data into
analog form and vice versa.
Working :A modem is a computer peripheral that
allows to connect and communicate with the other
computers through telephone lines. In MoDem ,
Mo stands Modulation and Dem stands for
Demodulation . Modulation means to convert
digital signals to analog signals and Demodulation
is reverse of that. The data is transferred form
source to the destination through telephone
wires and they can only understand analog signals
so there is need to convert digital signals to
analog . And computer can only understand digital
signals . This conversion is done by MoDem.
 WORKING OF A MODEM

Analog signals Analog signals

MODEM MODEM
Digital Signals
Digital Signals

Source Computer
Destination (Remote Computer)
 Types of MoDem
( 1 ) Internal MoDem : The
MoDem which is connected inside
the computer is called Internal
MoDem.
( 2 ) External MoDem : The
MoDem which is connected
externally to a computer is called
External MoDem.
 RJ-11 Connector
It stands for Registered Jack - 11. It is a wire
connector which can be used to connect computers
in a LAN . It needs to use only 6P2C connectors.
Cables sold as RJ11 can also use 6P4C connectors
(six position, four conductor), with four wires
running to a central junction box. Two of the six
possible contact positions connect tip and ring, and
the other two conductors are then unused.
 RJ-45 Connector

It stands for Registered Jack -

45. It is a 8 wire connector
which can be used to connect
computers in a LAN and for
modem connections .
Ethernet Card : It is LAN
architecture which can be used in
bus and star topologies. It can be
used to transfer the data up to a
rate of some Mbps. It has
connections for coaxial and
twisted pair cable. It is generally
preferable for the desktop
computers.
Wifi Card : A device that
adds wireless connectivity to a laptop or
desktop computer. Its advantages are :
1. It gives you relief from installing
Internal Hardware
2. It makes your computer free from
cables
3. It allows you to use multiple
devices.
 REPEATER
A repeater is a device that
amplifies a signal being
transmitted on a network for long
distances. It is used in long
network lines, which exceed the
maximum rated distance for a
single run. It regenerates the
data and voice signals.
 Gateway
A gateway is a device that connects
dissimilar networks. It gives an
intelligent connection between a local
network and an external network with
different structures .
It is a special device which allows
different networks to talk to internet that
uses TCP/IP.
 Router

A router is a device that can be

used to separate different
segments in a network . It works
on logical addresses of the
systems which can handle
different protocols.
 Bridge

A Bridge is a device that can be

used to establish an intelligent
connection between two local
networks. It works on physical
addresses of the systems which
can handle different protocols.
 Hub
It is a device that can be used to connect a
number of computers. It provides a central
connection point for workstations , server
and other devices. It can be of two types :
• ( a ) Active Hub : A hub that electrically
amplifies the signals. It means it is used as
a repeater.
• ( b ) Passive Hub : A hub that allow the
signals to pass from one computer to the
other without any change.
 Switch
It is a device which can be used to
segment networks into different
sub networks called subnets. It
prevents traffic overloading in the
network. It transforms the data in
the form of forwarding packets and
it supports packet protocols. It
filters a piece of message being
transmitted.
 Backbone Network

A backbone is a central
interconnecting structure
which is used to connect two
or more networks e.g. LANs
together to form a WAN

e.g. FDDI – Fiber Distributed Data Interface

 Some Important Terms
( 1 ) Data Channel : A channel is a medium that is used to carry
information or data from one point to the other.

( 2 ) Data Transfer Rate : It refers to the amount of data

transferred per unit second by a communication channel or a storage
device. The higher units to measure the rate of transfer of data are :

( a ) bps : bits per second

( b ) kbps : Kilo bits per second
( c ) Mbps : million bits per second
( d ) Gbps : Giga bits per second
( e) Tbps : Tera bits per second
( 3 ) Bandwidth :

It is the difference between the highest and lowest

frequencies of a transmission channel. It refers the
amount of the information travelling through a single
channel at one point of time. High bandwidth channels
are called broad bandwidth channels and low bandwidth
channels are called narrow bandwidth channels. Some of
the commonly used units for this are :

Hz , kHz , MHz , GHz , THz

 Communication and Networks
( 1 ) Protocols : The protocols refer some rules and regulations
that are applicable for a network. These are formal description of
message formats and the rules that must be followed by two
machines to exchange these messages. They define standardized
formats for the data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting
errors. Most common examples of the used protocols are :
( a ) HTTP : It stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocols and it is an
application-level protocol for speed necessary and hypermedia
information systems. It has various built-in request methods which
allow users to read or browse through a web page.
( b ) TCP / IP : It stands for Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol. These protocols help us to browse through web
pages using a an internet browser. If a message is very large , TCP
will split it up into several small packets called data grams.
( c ) FTP : FTP stands for File Transfer
Protocols .This protocols are helpful for
transferring or uploading and downloading
the files over the internet.

Its basic advantages are :

1. It helps and promotes sharing of files.
2. To transfer data reliably and
effectively .
( d ) PPP : It stands for Point to Point Protocols. It
is layered protocols which is consisted of 3
types of Protocols .

(1)IPCP : IP Control Protocols – used for IP

packets over PPP link.
(2)NCP : Network Control Protocols – used
for traffic transport over PPP link.
(3)LCP : Link Control Protocols – used for
link establishment.
 Chat and Video Conferencing Protocols
( e ) VoIP : It stands for Voice over Internet
Protocol. It is a technology that allows you
to make voice calls using a broadband
Internet connection instead of a regular (or
analog) phone line. Some VoIP services
may only allow you to call other people
using the same service, but others may
allow you to call anyone who has a
telephone number - including local, long
distance, mobile, and international numbers.
 E-mail Protocols
( f ) SMTP : It stands for Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol. It is an
internet standard for E-mail
transmission across internet
protocol networks. SMTP is
generally used to send messages
from a mail client to a mail
server.
 E-mail Protocols
( g ) POP3 : It stands for Post Office
Protocol with version 3. It is an internet
protocol which is used to receive and hold
email for an individual until they pick it
up. It makes it easy for anyone to check
their email from any computer in the
world, provided they have configured their
email program properly to work with the
protocol.
 Wireless Protocols
( h ) Wi-Fi : Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked phrase that means IEEE
802.11x standards ( Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers) which is a Local Area Wireless technology that allows
an electronic device to exchange data or connect high speed internet
using radio waves. However, since most modern WLANs are based
on these standards, the term "Wi-Fi" is used in general English as a
synonym for "WLAN".
Many devices can use Wi-Fi, e.g., personal computers, video-
game consoles, smart phones , digital cameras, tablets and digital
audio players. These can connect to a network resource such as the
Internet via a wireless network access point . Such an access point
(or hotspot) has a range of about 20 meters (66 feet) indoors and a
greater range outdoors.
 Wireless Protocols
( i ) Wi-Max : It stands for Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access which is
a wireless communications standard designed to
provide 30 to 40 mbps for fixed stations. It
provides High speed broadband connectivity and
Leased Line connections. It can provide at-home
or mobile Internet access across whole cities or
countries.
It is now economically viable to provide last-mile
broadband Internet access in remote locations.
 ( 2 ) Datagram : It is a collection of the data that is sent as a
single message.
( 3 ) Internet : A very large network of networks is called internet.
It is the world’s largest network which provides facilities like :

( a ) E-mail : E-mail stands for Electronic mail. It is facility of

internet which can be used to send and receive messages. This facility is
becoming very popular all over the world now a days. Its different
advantages are :
( I ) Low Cost : It is very cheap to send or receive a message through
E-mail.
( II ) Speed : The messages can be sent from one location to the other
very fast.
( III ) Reliable : It is more reliable and safe to send a message by
E-mail in comparison to conventional mailing system.
( IV ) Easy to use : It is also very easy to send or receive messages by
this.
( b ) WWW : It stands for World Wide Web . It is a
set of some protocols that allows to access any
document on the Internet through a naming system
based on URL(Uniform Resource Locators).

It is a system of interlinked hypertext documents that

are accessed via the Internet . With a Web Browser,
one can view web pages that may contain text, images,
videos, and other multimedia and navigate between
them via hyperlinks.

It also specifies a way to send and receive a document

over the internet .It means it is a way of visiting a Web
Site.
( c ) Video Conferencing : It is a face to face
service of internet by which the user can talk to
another person via the microphone and speakers
connected to the computer system. It can be used to
send images and voice from one place to the other.
Instead of typing messages the user can see the face
of the other person and can transmit the voice and
the video.
( d ) Chat : Online textual talk in real time is called
Chatting. It is a service of internet by which the
user can communicate with the other user by typing
the messages on the screen and gets the response
immediately.
( e ) Telnet :
It is an Internet facility which allows us to log in to other
computers over the internet. This facility is generally used
to check the E-mail messages by the users irrespective of
the physical location from where the connection has been
taken. Most ISP provides this service to the account
holders and this facility needs a Telnet program which can
be used after entering the user name and password .

It refers to e-mail system which

( f ) Voice mail :
supports audio. Users can leave spoken messages
for one another and listens to the messages by
executing the appropriate commands in the e-mail
system.
 Basic Terminology
( 1 ) URL: It stands for Uniform Resource Locators .
These are the unique addresses of the web sites in
the Internet . It specifies the distinct address for
each resource on the internet. It has three parts :
1. The Protocol
2. The DNS name of the machine on which the page is
located
3. A local name uniquely indicating the specific page.

It can be of three types Absolute URL , Relative

URL and Fragment URL.
( 2) Web Browser : It a software that navigates
through the WWW and displays the Web Page.
Examples : Internet Explorer , Google Chrome ,
Firefox ,Opera , Safari , Netscape Navigator etc.
( 3 ) Web Server : It is a World Wide Web Server
that responds to the requests made by the web
browsers.
( 4 ) Web Site : It is collection of web pages
which are hyper linked with each other belonging
to a particular person or organization . It may
contain information in the form of text , images
etc. It can be called a location on the net .
( 5 ) Web Page : A web page is a
single unit of information that is
available through a World Wide
Web. A web page is an HTML
page that is stored on a web server
and has a URL so that is can be
accessed via the web.
(6) ISP:It stands for Internet Service Provider
.It is a company or an organization that
provides the internet access.It provides
domain name service etc. It also provides the
technical support to the users.
( 7 ) Intranet : An intranet is a
network that exists in a single
organization and can be handled by
it . It is based on the internet
technology.
 Web Services
( 1 ) HTML : It stands for Hyper Text Markup
Language . It is used to design the layout of a
document and to specify the hyper links. This
language tells the web browser how to display the
contents of a hypertext document. This language
provides many layout commands which are called
tags.
( 2 ) DHTML : It stands for Dynamic Hyper Text
Markup Language. It refers to the web contents that
change each time when it is viewed e.g. Time of Day ,
Profile of the Reader etc. This allows a web page to
change after it is loaded into the web browser.

( 3 ) XML : It stands for eXtensible Markup Language.

This language is used for the documents containing
structured information which contains words and picture
both. This neither specifies semantics nor a tag set. In this
language there is no predefined tag set.
( 4 ) DNS : It stands Domain Name System. It is a
character based naming system by which the servers are
identified .
Domains System :
com Commercial
edu Education
gov Government
mil military
co company
org Organization
( 5 ) Web Hosting : It is a way of hosting the web
server application on a computer where the contents
are available to any web browser clients. Its different
types are :
( a ) Free Hosting : A type of web hosting which offers
visiting many websites free of cost.
( b ) Virtual or Shared Hosting : A type of web hosting
which is provided under one’s own domain . Using this
one can present himself as a fully independent identity
to his web audience.

( c ) Dedicated Hosting : A type of web hosting in

which a company or an organization hires a web
server from the hosting company.

( d ) Co-location Hosting : A type of web hosting in

which a company or an organization owns its own
server on which the site is hosted. In this the company
owning the website is responsible for all server
administration.
 Web Scripting

The process of creating and

embedding scripts in a web page is
called Web scripting . A script is a list
of commands which is interpreted and
executed by a certain program or a
scripting engine.
Types of Scripts
1. Client Side Script :

This scripting enables interaction only within a web

page. The client side scripts are downloaded at the
client end and then interpreted and executed by the
browser. Its properties are :
a) It can be used to customise the display of web page
without reloading the page.
b) This is affected by processing speed of the user’s
computer .
Some of the common client side scripting languages
are VBScript , Java script , PHP (Hypertext Pre-
processor ).
2. Server Side Script :

This scripting enables the completion or carrying out

a task at the server end and then sending the results
to the client end.
The server does all the work so that it does not matter
which browser is being used at the client end. The
server side script is used when the information is sent
to a server to be processed at the server end. Its
properties are :
a)It can be used to protect the password and to edit
and adding new contents to a web page dynamically .
b)It is not dependent of the browser . This is affected
by processing speed of the host server .
Some of the common server side scripting languages
are ASP ( Active Server Pages ) , Perl , JSP ( Java
Server Pages ).
 Web 2.0
It describes World Wide Web sites that use technology beyond
the static pages of earlier Web sites. A Web 2.0 site may allow
users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social
media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual
community.
Examples of Web 2.0 includes social networking sites ,
blogs ,video sharing sites, hosted services , Web Applications
etc.
Its main Characteristics :
1.It turns the Web from a read-only environment into an online
community where people meet, exchange information,
collaborate, and communicate using web-based tools.
2.Interoperability on the internet
3.Video Sharing in websites
 Network Security Concepts

( 1 ) Cookies : These are the messages which a web server

transmits to the web browser so that the server can keep a track on
the user’s activities on a web site.
( 2 ) Hackers : The people who are interested in learning
programming languages and computer system and can be
considered computer experts. This is term is used for those who
gain unauthorized access to use computer systems for stealing and
corrupting data.
( 3 ) Crackers : The programmers who break into the network
security system.
( 4 ) Cyber law : It refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects
of Internet and the WWW. It is a way to check your legal
transactions in the Internet Environment.
( 19 ) India’s IT Act: India’s IT Act was notified in Oct. 2000 .
Its basic aim is to provide legal infrastructure for E-Commerce in
India by governing the transactions the Internet and other electronic
medium.
( 20 ) Cyber Crime : “An unlawful act where in the
computer is either a tool or a target or both.”

Its Classification:
(a) Tempering with computer source documents
(b) Hacking
(c) Accessing Protected system
(d) Breach of confidentiality and privacy
( 21 ) IPR Issues : It refers to the Intellectual
Property Rights which can be defined as a product of
the intellect that has commercial value including the
copyrighted property such as any artistic work etc.
These are legal rights which result from intellectual
activity in the industry, artistic fields etc.

( 22 ) Hacking : It is an unauthorized access of a

computer system and networks. It is a process
of destroying , deleting , altering any
information residing in a computer resource or
diminishing its value or utility.
 Network Security
The different Prevention methods are used while working in Network
environment for security.

( 1 ) Authorization : It determines whether the ISP has granted the

access to the web service or not. It is done by asking the user legal
login-Id.
( 2 ) Authentication : It is a way to check the password protection of
an authorised user.
( 3 ) Firewall : It is a system designed to prevent the unauthorised
users to access to or from a private network. In this we can also
encrypt the data. It ignores information that comes from an
unsecured, unknown or suspicious locations.
( 4 ) Encrypted Smart cards : It is smart hand-held card that can
generate a token that a computer can recognise. Every time a new
token is generated.
( 5 ) Biometric System : It includes some unique aspect of a person’s
body such as finger prints etc. To establish his identity.
 Viruses
A computer virus is a malicious program that requires a host
and designed to make a system sick.

Types of viruses :
1. File infector virus : They attach themselves to a program
file.
2. Boot sector virus: They install themselves on the
beginning tracks of a hard disk.
3. Macro Virus: They infect data files.

Characteristics of virus :
1. It is able to replicate.
2. It is activated by an external action.
3. It requires a host program as a carrier.
Damage it causes :
1. It can destroy file allocation Table (FAT) and can
corrupts the entire file system.
2. It can create bad sectors on the disk which can
decrease the space on the disk by duplicating files.
3. It can also cause the system to hang.
4. It can also destroy specific executable files and alter
data in data files.

Trojan Horses: It is code hidden in a program such as a

game which looks safe to run but has hidden side effects .
They generally spread through E-mail and exchange of
disks. It also causes the same damage as the virus does.
Worms :A worm is a program that is designed to
replicate. It uses a network to send copies of itself to
other nodes which may be without any user’s
intervention.
Characteristics of worm :
1. It is a self contained and does not need a host.
2. It is activated by creating process.
3. It generally spreads through the network connections.
Damage :
It disrupts services and create system management
problems.
Spam: It refers to the electronic junk mail or junk
newsgroup postings.
How to remove Virus/Worms/Trojan Horses: They can
be removed by using an antivirus(anti-worm).
 Protection from Virus

1. Never use a foreign disk or a CD without

scanning it for virus.
2. Always scan files downloaded from the
internet or the other resources.
3. Never boot the system with a Floppy unless
you are certain that is virus free.
4. Use licensed software.
5. Make regular backups.
6. Install and use the updated antivirus.
7. Password protect the computer to prevent
unattended modifications.
 Wireless / Mobile Communication Protocols

( 1 ) Wireless communication : It is a way to

transfer data without any use of landlines. This
may involve cellular phone , satellite
communication etc.
( 2 ) GSM : It means Global System for Mobile
communication. It is one of the leading digital
cellular system. To connect to the specific service
provider in different countries GSM users use SIM
( Subscriber Identification Module ) Card . GSM
digitises and compresses the voice data.
( 3 ) SIM Card : It stands for
Subscriber Identification Module. It
is a small removable disk which are
used to slip in and out in cell phones.
They store all the connection data
and identification number which can
be used to access. It is basically a
small computer having memory ,
processor and ability to interact.
(4) CDMA It stands for Code-Division
:

Multiple Access. It is a digital cellular

technology which does not use any
specific frequency. CDMA is a form of
spread spectrum that means the data is
sent in small pieces over a number of
discrete frequencies available to use any
time in a specified range. At the receiver
end the same unique code is used to
recover the signal.
( 5 ) TDMA : It means Time Division
Multiple Access. It is a cellular
technology for delivering digital
wireless service using time division
multiplexing. It divides a radio
frequency into time slots and then
allocating slots to multiples calls. This
way a single frequency can support
multiple data channels.
( 6 ) GPRS : General packet radio service (GPRS) is
a packet oriented mobile data service on the 2G to 4G
cellular communication system's global system for mobile
communications (GSM).
Services offered:
1. SMS messaging and broadcasting
2. "Always on" internet access
3. Multimedia messaging service(MMS)
( 7 ) WLL : It stands for Wireless Local Loop . It is analogous
with local telephone service but with more capabilities. It serves as
a multiple transmit/receiver base stations. It is consisted of a radio
transceiver and the WLL interface assembled in one metal box. A
fax or a modem can also be connected with it for communication.
Advantages :
( 1 ) WLL facilities are not suffered by weather problems.
( 2 ) It offers a better bandwidth for communication.
( 8 ) GPS : The Global Positioning System (GPS) is
a space-based satellite navigation system that provides
location and time information in all weather
conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there
is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to
military, civil and commercial users around the world.

GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool

for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and
surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday
activities such as banking, mobile phone operations.
 Mobile Telecommunication Technologies

( 1 ) 1G : It refers to the first generation of

wireless telephone technology ( mobile
telecommunications). These are the
analog telecommunications standards that were
introduced in the 1980s and continued until being
replaced by 2G digital telecommunications. The
main difference between the two mobile telephone
systems (1G and 2G), is that the radio signals used
by 1G networks are analog, while 2G networks are
digital.
( 2 ) 2G: It refers to second-generation wireless telephone
technology . Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their
predecessors were :
( a ) Phone conversations and text messages were digitally
encrypted allowing the transfer of data in such a way that only
the intended receiver can receive and read it.
(b) 2G systems were significantly more efficient on the
spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration
levels.
( c ) It introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS
text messages. 2G technologies enabled the various mobile
phone networks to provide the services such as text messages,
picture messages and MMS (multi media messages).
( d ) Its speed is around 64 kbps.
( 3 ) 3G : It stands third generation . It is a
broadband mobile communication technology in
which the packet based transmission of text ,
digitised voice , video etc. is done. It offers a
consistent set of services to the mobile computer
and phone users no matter where they are located
in the world.
Some of the Applications of 3G:
•Global Positioning System(GPS)
•Mobile TV and multimedia applications
•Video Conferencing
•Video on demand
•Speed around 2 Mbps
( 4 ) 4G : It stands fourth generation . A 4G
system, in addition to the usual voice and other
services of 3G, provides mobile broadband
Internet access e.g.
•To laptops with wireless modems
•To smart phones , and to other mobile devices.
•High Definition Mobile TV
•Video conferencing
•3D Television and
•Cloud Computing.
•Speed around 100 Mbps
 Mobile Processor
A mobile processor is found in mobile computers
and cell phones. A CPU chip is designed for
portable computers, it is typically housed in a
smaller chip package, but more importantly, in
order to run cooler, it uses lower voltages than
its desktop counterpart and has more sleep mode
capability. The clock frequency may be stepped
down under low processor loads. This stepping
down conserves power and prolongs battery life.
 Open Source Software Concepts
Open Source Software (OSS) : It refers to a kind of
software whose source code is freely available to the
customer. It includes the freedom to redistribute the
source code freely. The customers are also allowed to
do modifications in the source code. e.g.
Operating System like Open Solaris , Linux , GNU ,
BOSS , Android , Fedora etc.
Application Software like Open Office , Neo Office
Web Browser like Google Chrome , Mozilla Firefox
Programming Languages like PHP , PERL , Python , MySQL ,
Java
 Advantages of Open Source Software
1. Its generally free – it has been estimated that open source
software collectively saves businesses $60 billion a year.
These days for virtually every paid for proprietary software
system you will find an open source version.
2. It continually evolving in real time as developers add to it
and modify it, which means it can be better quality and more
secure and less prone to bugs than proprietary systems,
because it has so many users poring over it and weeding out
problems.
3. Using open source software also means you are not locked
in to using a particular vendor’s system that only work with
their other systems.
4. You can modify and adapt open source software for your
own business requirements, something that is not possible with
proprietary systems.
A software which is free as well as open belongs
to the category called FOSS ( Free and Open
Source Software)

Free Software : A software which is freely

accessible and can be freely used for any
purpose , modified , improved , copied by all
and redistributed without any payment. It also
includes the release of the improvements to the
public to benefit the community. Access to the
source is a precondition for this.
Free Libre or Free Livre and Open Source Software
(FLOSS) : It refers to a kind of software which is free as
well as open source software .

GNU : It refers to GNU Not Unix . It emphasizes on the

freedom and thus its logo type shows gnu means an animal
living in freedom. The main objective of GNU was to create
system compatible to Unix but not identical to it. Now it is
not limited to operating system , it offers a range of
software including application software.

FSF : It refers to Free Software Foundation . It is non

profit organization which was created for the purpose of
supporting free software movement. It works on the legal
and structural issues for the free software community.
OSI ( Open Source Initiative ) : It is an organization which
also promotes the open source software. The distribution
terms of open source software must comply with the open
source definition by OSI.

W3C : It refers to World Wide Web Consortium . It is

responsible for producing the software standards for the
World Wide Web. It was created in 1994 to create the
softwares for the WWW to its full potential by developing
common protocols which promote its revolution and ensure
its interoperability.
Proprietary Software : It refers to the type of softwares
which are neither open nor freely available. Its use is
regulated and further distribution and modification
requires special permission. Its source code is generally not
available.
Freeware : It is a category of a those softwares which are
available free of cost and which allows copying and further
distribution but no modification is allowed and its source
code is also not available.

Freeware is distributed in binary form i.e. ready to run

form. Microsoft Internet Explorer is an example of
Freeware.

Shareware : It refers to a software which is made available

with the right of distribution copies. In these kind of
softwares one is required to pay the license fee after a
certain period of time. In shareware the source code is not
available and modifications in the software are not allowed.
The basic advantage of shareware is to make the software
available to for as many users as possible.
 Cloud Computing
It is a concept used to describe a variety of computing
concepts that involve a large number of computers
connected through a real time communication network
like Internet.
Its main characteristics:
1. On demand self service
2. Broad network access like mobile phones, laptops
etc.
3. Resource Pooling
4. Elasticity
5. Independent from local hardware
Cloud Computing Deployment Model
This model is consisted of 4 types of layers.
1. Private Cloud : It refers to the computer
services delivered to a single organization .
The resources may be situated on or off
site. This model addresses the security and
privacy concerns.
2. Public Cloud: In this model all the physical
resources are owned and operated by a
third party cloud computing provider.
Multiple clients use the resources through
internet.
Cloud Computing Deployment Model
3. Community Cloud : It contains features of
private and public clouds both. This model
is best suited for organizations which share
common requirements such as security or
legal policies. It can be managed by the
members or by third party.
4. Hybrid Cloud: It includes aspects of all
other 3 cloud models. The company can use
its internal resources in a private cloud
public cloud to take backup of less sensitive
information . It is the most flexible model
for cloud computing.
 Cloud Computing Issues
1. Cloud Privacy : Security of personal data in
cloud computing is a huge challenge.
2. Cloud Compliance : It includes the security
of data as soon as it moves from the
internal storage to someone else’s cloud.
3. Cloud Security and sustainability : It is the
most critical aspect of cloud computing due
to sensitivity and importance of data stored
in the cloud.
4. Cloud as Abuse : This includes password
cracking and launching attacks using the
purchase services.
 E-commerce
Ecommerce or Electronic commerce or internet commerce, refers to the
buying and selling of goods or services using the internet, and the transfer
of money and data to execute these transactions. Its applications are:
1. Retail & wholesale
There are numerous applications for retail as well as wholesale in the case
of e-commerce. Here comes e-retailing or may be called as online
retailing.
2. Marketing
The marketing activities like price fixing, product feature, and its
enhancement, negotiation, and the relationship with the customer can be
made using these.
3. Finance
E-Commerce is being used by the financial companies to a large extent.
By the name finance, we know that there will be customers and
transactions. The customers can check the balance in their savings
account, as well as their loan account. There are features like transferring
of money from and to their own accounts, paying off bills online and also
e-banking.
 Exercise
An Organization has set up its new centers in a
city for its offices and web based activities .
It has 4 blocks of buildings as shown in the
diagram below :

Block Y Block Z

Block X
Block W
Center to center distances between various blocks :

Block X to Block Y 50 m
Block Y to Block Z 150 m
Block Y to Block W 175 m
Block X to Block W 270 m
Block X to Block Z 225 m
Block Z to Block W 70 m

Number of Computers :
Block X 25
Block Y 50
Block Z 125
Block W 10
( 1 ) Suggest the best cable layout of connection
between the blocks.
( 2 ) Suggest the placement of the following
devices :

( a ) Modem ( b ) Hub/Switch

( 3 ) The organization is planning to link its sale

counter suitated in various parts of the same city.
Which type of network out of LAN , WAN , MAN
will be formed. Justify your answer.