CHAPTER 3

Learning From Other Studies

and Reviewing the Literature
C Learning Outcomes:
H After studying this Chapter, the students are expected to:
A Select relevant literature.
P Cite relevant literature using standard style (APA, MLA or Chicago
T Manual of Style)
E Synthesize information from relevant literature
R Write coherent review of literature
Follow ethical standards in writing related literature
3
Illustrates and explain conceptual framework
Define terms used in the study
List research hypotheses (if appropriate)
Presents written review of related literature and conceptual
framework
C Quantitative Research
H The Importance of Related Theories and Concepts
A
P A Theoretical Framework can be
T sought of as a map or travel plan
E
R
(Sinclair, 2007).
At the start of any research study, it is
3 important to consider relevant theory
underpinning the knowledge base of
the phenomenon to be researched.
C Quantitative Research
H
The Importance of Related Theories and Concepts
A The following questions have been adapted from Slevin and
P Basford (1999:298):
T What do I know about the phenomenon that I want to
E study?
R What types of knowledge are available to me (empirical,
non-empirical, tacit, intuitive, moral, ethical)?
3
What theory will best guide my teaching practice?
Is this theory proven through theory-linked research?
What other theories are relevant to this practice?
How can I apply these theories and findings in practice?
C Quantitative Research
H The Importance of Related Theories and Concepts
A A Conceptual Framework is the researcher’s
P idea on how the research problem will have to be
T explored.
E
R
This is founded on the theoretical framework,
which lies on a much broader scale of resolution.
3 The Theoretical framework dwells on time-
tested theories that embody the findings of
numerous investigations on how phenomena
occur.
C Quantitative Research
H The Importance of Related Theories and Concepts
A Theoretical Framework provides a general
P
T
representation of relationships between things in a
E given phenomenon.
R The Conceptual Framework, on the other hand,
embodies the specific direction by which the research
3 will have to be undertaken.
The process of designing a theoretical framework is
developmental and experiential.
C Quantitative Research
H The Importance of Related Theories and Concepts
A Theoretical Framework is similar to the frame of the
P
T
house just as the foundation supports a house, a
E theoretical framework provides a rationale for
R predictions about the relationship among variables of
a research study, (Mehta, n.d.).
3 Theoretical Framework identifies the variables
investigated in the study. It illustrates how the
variables interact with each other as hypothesized in
the research by the aid of diagrams.
C Quantitative Research
H The Importance of Related Theories and Concepts
A Conceptual Framework is the basic structure that
P
T
serves as a mental window of the researcher because
E it depicts the research design and the relationships of
R the variables involved.
A Conceptual Framework is a written or visual
3 presentation that explains either geographically, or in
narrative form, the main things to be studied, the key
factors, concepts or variables and the presumed
relationship among them.
C Quantitative Research
H The Importance of Related Theories and Concepts
A Conceptual Framework provides direction for
P
T
programs, courses, teaching and others.
E Aside from showing the direction of the study,
R through the conceptual framework, the researcher is
able to show the relationships of the different
3 constructs that he wants to investigate.
The conceptual framework utilizes the independent-
dependent model used on behavioural sciences.
C Quantitative Research
Sample Theoretical-conceptual framework
H
Engagement to Social Networking: Challenges and Opportunities to Educators
A
P
T
E
R

3
C Quantitative Research
H Purposes of the Review of Related Literature and
A Studies
P
T
It is necessary for you to review information, facts,
E data available, or theories that have some relationship
R with your hypothesis which you posed in your stated
problem or research question.
3 In fact, even before you were conceptualizing your
study, you should have already read some volumes of
literature on your topic or subject matter.
C Quantitative Research
H Purposes of the Review of Related Literature and
A Studies
P
T
The review of literature and studies involves the
E critiquing and evaluating of what other researchers
R have done in relation to the problem to be studied
whether these studies affirmed or negate the subject
3 under study.
These can be from books, conference proceedings,
referred journal (printed or online) and other
published article.
C Quantitative Research
H Purposes of the Review of Related Literature and
A Studies
P
T
Literature may be defined as “written works
E collectively, especially, those enduring importance,
R exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill which
are written in a particular period, language, and
3 subject (Funk & Wagnalls Dictionary, 1976 as cited in
Calmorin)
In other words, any written materials published in
book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook and
encyclopaedia are considered literature.
C Quantitative Research
H Purposes of the Review of Related Literature and
A Studies
P
T
It is unscientific if related literature is presented but
E has no explanation of its relevance to the present
R study.
Reviewing the literature requires the ability to juggle
3 multiple tasks, from finding and evaluating relevant
material to synthesizing information from various
sources, from critical thinking to paraphrasing,
evaluating, and citation skills (Budgen & Brereton,
2006).
C Quantitative Research
H Purposes of the Review of Related Literature and Studies
A Pautasso (2013) enumerated ten simple rules for writing a literature
P review:
T Define the topic and audience
E -Topics must be interesting, important, and current.
R Search and re-search the literature
-after having chosen the topic and the audience, start downloading
3 published articles related to the topic. Some useful sites are: google
scholar, proquest, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC),
Researc Gate and PsycINFO
C Quantitative Research
H Purposes of the Review of Related Literature and Studies
A Pautasso (2013) enumerated ten simple rules for writing a literature
P review:
T Take notes while reading.
E If your read the papers first, and only afterwards start writing the review, you will
need a very good memory to remember who wrote what, and what your impressions
R and associations were while reading each single paper.
Choose the type of review you wish to write.
3
The choice between different review types will have to be made on a case-to-case
basis, depending not just on the nature of the material found and the preferences of the
target journal(s), but also on the time available to write the review and the number of co-
authors (Dijkers, 2009)
C Quantitative Research
H Purposes of the Review of Related Literature and Studies
A Pautasso (2013) enumerated ten simple rules for writing a literature
P review:
T Keep the review focused, but make if of broad interest
E Arranged readings according to themes. The need to keep review focused can be
problematic for interdisciplinary reviews, where the aim is to bridge the gap between
R fields (Wagner et al, 2011).
Be critical and consistent
3 Reviewing the literature is not like arranging hollow blocks. It is very important to have
consistency in your review.
Find a logical structure
Pautosso (2013) emphasized that like a well-baked cake, a good review has a number of
telling features: it is worth the reader’s time, timely, systematic, well written, focused,
and critical. It also needs a good structure. It must be arranged logically so as not to
destroy its implications.
C Quantitative Research
H Purposes of the Review of Related Literature and Studies
A Pautasso (2013) enumerated ten simple rules for writing a literature
P review:
T Make use of Feedback
E As a rule, incorporating feedback from reviewers greatly helps improve a review draft.
Having read the review with a fresh mind, reviewers may spot inaccuracies,
R inconsistencies, and ambiguities that had not been noticed by the writers due to
rereading the typescript too many times.
3 Include your own relevant research.
In many cases, reviewers of the literature will have published studies relevant to the
review they are writing. A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources,
but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis.
Be up-to-date in your review of literature and studies.
C Quantitative Research
H What, Where, and How to Find Information
A Because of the vastness of information available, you must
P choose only those that are pertinent to your project. How will you go
T about this?
E First, it is necessary that you list down all the important variables
R which you need in your study and any theories which you think can
generate your hypothesis and those that can explain the
3 relationships among your variables. Check all the variables that you
cited in your hypothesis.
Second, after the variables are determined, the relationship
between them posited and either a preliminary hypothesis or
investigative question stated, you continue your search for
information related to your problem being studied.
C Quantitative Research
H What, Where, and How to Find Information
A Because of the vastness of information available, you must
P choose only those that are pertinent to your project. How will you go
T about this?
E Third, check the population you want to include in your study.
R What theories have been posited that have significant bearing
on your study?
3 What are the appropriate sources where you can find the
desired information?
Are there documents in government and private agencies
where you can get information desired?
Determine the best way to retrieve those information.
C Quantitative Research
H What, Where, and How to Find Information
A Because of the vastness of information available, you must
P choose only those that are pertinent to your project. How will you go
T about this?
E In books, look over the table of contents and circle those you think
R are relevant to your project. The index of textbooks gives specific
page locations of key ideas in the book.
3 The glossary lists and defines key terms. Here you can get a great
deal of information about what is important.
The bibliography is a listing of resources an author has used or
recommends. Books that have “suggested” or “further reading”
lists at the end of chapters can also help as much as any other
bibliography.
C Quantitative Research
H What, Where, and How to Find Information
A Because of the vastness of information available, you must
P choose only those that are pertinent to your project. How will you go
T about this?
E Fourth, know how to write citations where you can include the
R author, the title, the publisher and the date of publication, the
volume number, the page number, information about the study and
3 the findings.
You should be able to distinguish the editorial styles of formats of
the following: the Modern Language Association (MLA) which is
popular today and the APA Style or the American Psychological
Association.
C Quantitative Research
H What, Where, and How to Find Information
A Because of the vastness of information available, you must
P choose only those that are pertinent to your project. How will you go
T about this?
E Fifth, review and synthesize those findings that support or reject
R your hypothesis or research questions. There are many theories
which are useful for hypothesizing and explaining relationships in
3 research. Explore on these.
Sixth, use on-line computers for searching and retrieval of
information. Surf the internet. You can use search engines like
Yahoo, Alta Vista, Infoseek, and Lycos which are popular today.
C Quantitative Research
H Types of Literature Review
A Argumentative Review
P This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument,
deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the
T literature.
E The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes opposite perspective.
R Integrative Review
This is considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes
representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and
3 perspectives on the topic are generated. This is the most common form of review in
social sciences.
Historical Review
The purpose of historical review is to systematically examine the past events and give an
account of what has happened in the past. The main focus of this is to communicate an
understanding of past events.
C Quantitative Research
H Types of Literature Review
A Methodological Review
A review does not always focus on what someone said but how they came about (method of analysis).
P Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e those of
theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques).
T
Systematic Review
E The purpose of a systematic review is to attain conclusion regarding the chosen topic. This form consists of
R an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-
specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect,
report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review.
3 Theoretical Review
The purpose of this form is to examine the body of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue,
concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature helps to establish what theories already exist, the
relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop
new hypotheses to be tested.
C Quantitative Research
H Functions of review of Literature and Studies
A
P To provide justification of the study
T To identify gaps, problems and needs of
E
R related studies
To provide rationale of the study as well as
3
the reasons of conducting the study
To have basis that will be used to support
findings of the study
C Quantitative Research
H Characteristics of the Materials Cited
A
P The materials must be as recent as
T possible, may be 10 year back.
E
R Materials must be as objective and
unbiased as possible.
3
Materials must be relevant to the study.
Coherence principle must be observed in
writing literature review.
C Quantitative Research
H
A
P
T
E
R

3
C Quantitative Research
H
A
P
T
E
R

3
C Quantitative Research
H Research Ethics
A Scientific writing can be a complex and arduous process, for it
P simultaneously demands clarity and conciseness; two elements that
T often clash with each other (Roig, 2002).
E In the same concept paper, Roig futher mentions the general
R principle underlying ethical writing the notion that the written work
of an author, be it a manuscript for a magazine or scientific journal, a
3 research paper submitted to a course, or a grant proposal submitted
to a funding agency, represents an implicit contract between the
author of that work and its readers.
“Ethical writing is clear, accurate, fair, and honest” as
mentioned by Kolin (2002).
C Quantitative Research
H Basic Principles of Ethical Practice
A The university of Leicester (2010) enumerated basic principles
P of ethical research practice. Knowing what constitutes ethical
T research is important for all people who conduct research projects or
E use and apply the results from research findings.
R 1. Obtained informed consent from participants
Informed Consent must be given to the research participants before they will be
subjected for the research. In the case of minors, parents or guardian must be fully ware
3 of the said activity. Fro native speakers, informed consent may be translated in their
dialect.
2. There should be no pressure on individuals to participate
Incentives to take part should generally not be provided. If an incentive is used, it needs
to be only a token, and not enough to encourage someone to participate who would
really prefer not to take part.
C Quantitative Research
H Basic Principles of Ethical Practice
A
P 3. Respect individual autonomy
T Autonomy means the freedom to decide what to do. Even when
E someone has signed a Consent Form, they must be made aware
R that they are free to withdraw from the study at any time,
without giving a reason. They must also be able to request that
the data they have given be removed from the study.
3
4. Avoid causing harm
The duty of the researcher is not to cause harm. The researcher
must make sure that the principle of voluntary participation is
observed in situations where there is interaction with subjects.
C Quantitative Research
H Basic Principles of Ethical Practice
A
5. Maintain anonymity and confidentiality
P
Making data “anonymous” means removing the contributor’s name.
T However, you will often need to take more than this basic step to protect a
E participant’s identity. Other information can help to identify people, for
R example: job title, age, gender, length of service, membership in clubs, and
strongly expressed opinions. The more pieces of information that are
presented together, the easier it is to identify someone.
3
6. Take particular care in research with vulnerable groups
Think about vulnerability in its widest sense. Care is clearly needed in
research with young children, and with people with disability, or minors.
However, others may be vulnerable in certain contexts, for example:
students, employees, dependents, or people with particular traits that
could be subject to prejudice.
C Quantitative Research
H Plagiarism
A It is the most widely recognized and one of the most serious
P violations of the contract between reader and the writer (Roig, 2002).
T Plagiarism is the using of someone else’s words or ideas, and
E passing them off your own. It can happen accidentally, for example, if you
R are careless in your note-taking (University of Leicester, 2010).
This can mean that you get mixed up over what is an exact quote,
and what you have written in your own words; or over what was an idea
3
of your own that you jotted down, or an idea from some text.
Research is a public trust that must be ethically conducted and so
trustworthy and socially responsible if the results are to be valid and
reliable.
C Quantitative Research
Plagiarism
H
According to Roig (2002), plagiarism has been traditionally defined
A as the taking of words, images, ideas etc. from an author and presenting
P them as one’s own.
T It is often associated with phrases, such as kidnapping of words,
E kidnapping of ideas, fraud, and literary theft.
R Plagiarism can manifest itself in a variety of ways and it is not just
confined to student papers or published articles or books.
3 There are two major types ins scholarly writing: plagiarism of ideas
and plagiarism of text.
Plagiarism of ideas is “appropriating an idea (e.g., an explanation, a
theory, a conclusion, a hypothesis, a metaphor) in whole or in part, or
with superficial modifications without giving credit to its originator”
(Roig, 2002)
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 1: An ethical writer ALWAYS acknowledges the contributions of
A others and the source of his/her idea.
P Violation: Copying a portion of text from another source without
T giving credit to its author and without enclosing the borrowed text in
E quotation marks.
R Guideline 2: Any verbatim text taken from another author must be
enclosed in quotation marks.
3 Violation: Copying a portion of a text from one or more sources,
inserting and/or deleting some part of the words, or substituting some
words with synonyms, but never giving credit to its author nor enclosing
the verbatim material in quotation marks.
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 3: We must always acknowledge every source that we use in
A our writing whether we paraphrase it, summarize it, or enclose it in quotations.
P Violation: Taking portions of text from one or more sources,
T crediting the author/s, but only changing one or two words or simply
E rearranging the order, voice (i.e., active vs. passive) and/or tense of the
R sentences.
Guideline 4: When we summarize, we condense, in our words, a
3 substantial amount of material into a short paragraph or perhaps even
into a sentence.
Guideline 5: Whether we are paraphrasing or summarizing, we must
always identify the source of our information.
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 6: When paraphrasing and/or summarizing other’s work, we
A must reproduce the exact meaning of the other author’s ideas or facts using
P our words and sentence structure.
T Guideline 7: In order to make substantial modification to the original text
E that result in a proper paraphrase, the author must have a thorough
R understanding of the ideas and terminology being used.
Guideline 8: A responsible writer has an ethical responsibility to readers,
and to the author/s from whom s/he is borrowing, to respect others’ ideas and
3 words, to credit those form whom we borrow, and whenever possible, to use
one’s own words when paraphrasing.
Guideline 9: When in doubt as to whether a concept or fact is common
knowledge, provide citation.
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 10: Authors who submit a manuscript for publication containing
A data, reviews, conclusions, etc., that have already been disseminated in some
P significant manner (e.g., published as an article in another journal, presented
T at a conference, posted on the internet) must clearly indicate to the editors
and readers the nature of the previous dissemination.
E
R Guideline 11: Authors of complex studies should heed the advice
previously put forth by Angell & Relman (1989). If the results of a single
complex study are best presented as a “cohesive” single whole, they
3 should not be partitioned into individual papers. Furthermore, if there is
any doubt as to whether a paper submitted for publication represents
fragmented data, authors should enclose other papers (published or
unpublished) that might be part of the paper under consideration
(Kassirer & Angel, 1995).
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 12: Because some instances of plagiarism, self-plagiarism, and
A even some writing practices that might otherwise be acceptable (e.g extensive
P paraphrasing or quoting of key elements of a book) can constitute copyright
T infringement, authors are strongly encouraged to become familiar with basic
elements of copyright law.
E
R Guideline 13: While there are some situations where text recycling
is an acceptable practice, it may not be so in other situations.
Authors are urged to adhere to the spirit of ethical writing and avoid
3
reusing their own previously published text, unless it is done in a
manner consistent with standard scholarly conventions (e.g. using of
quotations and proper paraphrasing).
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 14: Authors are strongly urged to double-check their citations.
A Specifically, authors should always ensure that each reference notation
P appearing in the body of the manuscript corresponds to the correct citation
T listed in the reference section and vice versa and that each source listed in the
reference section has been cited at some point in the manuscript.
E
R In addition, authors should also ensure that all elements of a
citation (e.g. spelling of author’s names, volume number of journal,
pagination) are derived directly from the original paper, rather than from
3 a citation that appears on a secondary source.
Finally, authors should ensure that credit is given to those authors
who first reported the phenomenon being studied.
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 15: The references used in a paper should only be those that
A are directly related to its contents. The intentional inclusion of references of
P questionable relevance for purposes of manipulating a journal’s or a paper’s
T impact or a factor or a paper’s chances of acceptance is an unacceptable
practice.
E
R Guideline 16: Authors should follow a simple rule: Strive to obtain the
actual published paper. When the published paper cannot be obtained,
cite the specific version of the material being used, whether it is a
3 conference presentation, abstract or an unpublished manuscript.
Guideline 17: Generally, when describing other’s work, do not rely on
a secondary summary of that work. It is deceptive practice, reflects poor
scholarly standards, and can lead to a flawed description of the work
described. Always consult the primary literature.
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 18: If an author must rely on a secondary source (e.g.,
A textbook) to describe the contents of a primary source (e.g., an empirical
P journal article), s/he should consult writing manuals used in his/her discipline
T to follow the proper convention to do so. Above all, always indicate the actual
source of information being reported.
E
R Guideline 19: When borrowing heavily from a source, authors should
always craft their writing in a way that makes clear to readers, which
ideas are their own and which are derived form the source consulted.
3
Guideline 20: When appropriate, authors have an ethical
responsibility to report evidence that runs contrary to their point of view.
In addition, evidence that we use in support of our position must be
methodologically sound. When citing supporting studies that suffer from
methodological, statistical, or other types of shortcomings, such flaws
must be pointed out to the reader.
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 21: Authors have an ethical obligation tom report all aspects of
A the study that may impact the independent replicability of their research.
P Guideline 22: Researchers have an ethical responsibility to report the
T results of their studies according to their priori plans. Any post hoc
E manipulations that may alter the results initially obtained, such as the
R elimination of outliers or the use of alternative statistical techniques,
must be clearly described with an acceptable rationale for using such
techniques.
3
Guideline 23: Only those individuals who have made substantive
contributions to a project merit authorship in a paper.
C Quantitative Research
Twenty-five Ethical Guidelines (Roig, 2002)
H
Guideline 24: Faculty-student collaborations should follow the same
A criteria to establish authorship. Mentors must exercise great care to neither
P award authorship to students whose contributions do not merit it, nor to any
T authorship and due credit to the work of students.
E Guideline 25: Academic or professional ghost authorship in the
R sciences is ethically unacceptable.
Hexam (1999) reveals that it is possible to steal oneself as when
3 one engages in embezzlement or insurance of fraud. In writing, self-
plagiarism occurs when authors reuse their own previously written
work or data in a “new” written product without letting the reader
know that this material has appeared elsewhere.
C Quantitative Research
Protecting the Intellectual Property in the Philippines
H
Philippine copyright law is enshrined in the Intellectual Property
A Code of the Philippines, officially known as Republic Act No. 8293.
P The law is partly based on United States copyright law and the
T principles of the Berne Convention for the Protection of the Literary and
E Artistic Work.
R Under Philippine Law, original intellectual creations in the literary
and artistic domain are copyrightable. These include books, pamphlets,
3 articles and other writings, periodicals and newspapers, lectures,
sermons, addresses, dissertations prepared for oral delivery, letters,
dramatic or dramatic-musical compositions, choreographic works or
entertainment in dumb shows, musical compositions, drawing, painting,
architecture, sculpture, engraving, etc.