MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

(Kinetics)

Dr. Kanwal Khan

Assistant Professor
SCIPTR
BIOMECHANICS

Mechanics is the branch of physics that

analyzes the action of forces on
particles and mechanical systems
SUBDIVISIONS OF BIOMECHANICS

Kinematics
Study of the description of motion, including
considerations of space and time.

Kinetics
Study of the action of forces.
 Variables to understand the
mechanical principles of Kinetics
are: -

 Motion

 Force

 Torque

 Lever

 Equilibrium
MOTION
Displacement of a body or one of its segments from one
point to another.
Five variables determine and describe body or segmental
motion:
1) Type of motion
2) Location of the motion
3) Magnitude of the motion
4) Direction of the motion
5) Rate of motion or rate of change at which motion occurs
TYPE OF MOTION
Two basic types of motion: -

Translatory Motion
When body is moving along the line that may be
straight or curved, with all parts of the body moving in
the same direction at same speed. Also known as linear
motion (may be rectilinear or curvilinear)

Angular Motion
It involves rotation of body around a central line or
point.
LOCATION OF MOTION
Body segmental movement occurs in three dimensional axes namely: -

X-axis or coronal or horizontal axis

Y-axis or longitudinal or vertical axis
Z-axis or sagittal or anterio-posterior axis
MAGNITUDE OF MOTION
Magnitude is known as the body displaced by the force applied on it.

It is measured in either linear or rotatory distance.

Linear distance is measured in meters and rotatory in degrees and described as

range of motion.
DIRECTION OF MOTION
Since joint motion occurs around the joint axes so motion has
positive and negative components.

Similar to a common graph moving along the x-axis toward

the right is positive and toward the left is negative.

Moving along the y-axis upward is positive and downward is

negative.

Finally, moving along the z-axis toward the front or anteriorly

is positive and moving backward or posteriorly is negative.
 In the anatomical position movement in the x-axis (medial-
lateral axis) occurs in the sagittal plane and provides flexion and
extension

 Movement on the z-axis (anterior-posterior axis) occurs in the

frontal planes and includes abduction and adduction;

 Rotation motions occur on the y-axis (superior-inferior or

vertical axis) in the transverse plane.
RATE OF CHANGE OF MOTION
Velocity is the rate at which body or segment moves.

In Translatory motion it is measured in meter per second

(m/s) and in rotatory motion it is measured in degrees
per second.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

In Translatory motion it can be measured in meter per

second square and in rotatory motion it is measured in
degrees per second square.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
It states that if a body is at rest it will remain at rest and
if a body is at uniform motion it will remain in motion
unless and until an external force is applied to it.
This property of a body to resist the change in motion or
equilibrium is known as Inertia.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

It states that “The acceleration(a) of a body is directly proportional to the net

force(F) and inversely proportional to the mass(m) of a body”.
THIRD LAW OF MOTION
It states that “For every action there is an equal an
opposite reaction”.
For example, jumping trampoline
FORCE
Force is a push and pull that stops or tends to stop or produces or tends to
produces the motion in the body.

Force has two dimensional vector quantity. It has a magnitude and direction.
TYPES OF FORCE
There are four primary sources of force affect body
movement.
Gravity
The most prevalent force that all structures encounter
is gravity.

Muscle
Muscles produces force on their bony segments by
either active contractions or passive stretching.
Muscles force provide motion to body segment.
Externally Applied Resistances.
These devices are numerous and whatever the
muscles must work against to produce
motion. Examples include
exercise pulleys,
manual resistance

Friction
Friction is the resistance to movement
between two objects that are in contact with
each other.
RESULTANT FORCE
Two or more forces must act on a common
point but must pull or push in different
directions.
The overall effect of these two different
forces is called the resultant force
FORCE PARALLELOGRAM
Two parallel lines to the force vectors F1=4N & F2=2N are drawn graphically to
form a parallelogram.

The diagonal line of the parallelogram from the point of action of the two forces
represents the resultant force vector.
FORCE COUPLE
FORCE COUPLE
When we grasp the opposite side of the steering wheel
and turn it, you are applying a couple to the wheel.

Two forces equal in magnitude but opposite in direction

Couples have pure rotational effects on the body with

no capacity to translate the body in the vertical or
horizontal direction.
TORQUE
It’s the ability of a force to produce rotational effect in a body or segment
around the fixed point or axis, also known as moment of force.

Depends upon two variables: -

The magnitude of force (F)
Perpendicular distance (r)
T=FxD
LEVER
LEVER
It’s a rigid bar and it can rotate around the fixed point axis when force is
applied on the either side of the bar.
The lever is the simple machine that allow the person to exert a force greater
than could be exerted by the muscle alone.
The basic principle of lever is to gain the advantage in our daily lives also
known as “Mechanical Advantage”
 There are five basic terminologies to
understand the principle of lever:

 Force or Effort
 Resistance or Weight
 Fulcrum or axis
 Force arm
 Resistance arm
II. Levers of the Human Body

- There are three parts of a lever:

o Force point (point where effort is applied)
Insertion point of the muscle of interest on bone

o Resistance point (point where resistance acts)

The CG of the moving body segment plus any external
weight

o Fulcrum (axis of motion)

Force arm (FA): Perpendicular distance from the fulcrum
to the line of action of the force acting on the force point

Resistance arm (RA): Perpendicular distance from the

fulcrum to the line of action of the resistance acting on the
resistance point
ORDERS OF LEVER
Lever come in three types or orders.
The orders are:-

First order lever ------ no restriction

Second order lever --- MA > 1
Third order lever ----- MA < 1
 First order lever
In a first-class lever, the axis is located
between the force and the resistance:

First-class lever F _______________ R

A
First Class Lever
- Fulcrum is between the force point and the
resistance
point
- Example: Triceps muscle acting at the elbow joint
o Fulcrum – Elbow joint
o Force point – Olecranon process, proximal to the
elbow joint, where the triceps muscle inserts
o Resistance point – CG of the forearm
Body Example
 Second Order Lever
In a second-class lever, the resistance is in
the middle, with the axis at one end and
the force at the other end:
Second-class lever
R F
A
Second Class Lever
- Resistance point is between the force point and the
fulcrum
- Example: Wheelbarrow
o Fulcrum – Wheel
o Force point – Where the handles are gripped
o Resistance point – Where the weight sits in the box
Body Example
 Third Order Lever
A third-class lever has force in the middle,
with resistance and the axis at the opposite
ends:
Third-class lever
F R
A
Third Class Lever
- Force point is between the resistance point and fulcrum
- Most common in the body, since it permits the muscle to be
inserted near the joint and to produce distance and speed of
movement
- Example: Biceps producing flexion at the elbow
o Fulcrum – Elbow joint
o Force point – Insertion of the biceps on the radial tuberosity
o Resistance point – CG on the forearm
Body Example
Principle of Levers: A lever of any class will balance when

Force x Force Arm = Resistance x Resistance Arm

F x FA = R x RA

Mechanical advantage of a lever

- Ratio of force arm (FA) to resistance arm (RA) length determines
the mechanical advantage
of a lever; manipulates resistance

- Force lever: When the FA of a lever is longer than its RA, the
mechanical advantage favors
application of force at the sacrifice of speed

- Speed lever: When the RA is longer than the FA, the lever favors
speed and range of motion
at the sacrifice of force

MA = FA/RA
EQUILIBRIUM
 EQUILIBRIUM
When an object is balanced, all torques acting on it
are even
Equilibrium is the property of a body to be
displaced or stabilize on its own when force is
acting on it.
A state in which opposing forces or actions are
balanced so that one is not
stronger or greater than the other
VARIABLES DETERMINING THE BODY
EQUILIBRIUM
1) Center of Gravity (COG)

2) Line of Gravity (LOG)

3) Base of Support (BOS)

 CENTER OF GRAVITY (COG)

 The point at which a body’s mass is concentrated and where it is

balanced on all sides in all planes (i.e., frontal, sagittal, and
transverse)
 Also, the point where gravity is enacting its constant downward pull
CENTER OF GRAVITY
Balance point of an object at which
torque on all sides is equal.

It is also the point at which the planes of

the body intersect.

In the human body, the COG is located

slightly anterior to the second sacral
vertebra of an adult.

Because body proportions change with

age, the COG of a child is higher than
that of an adult.
Center of Gravity
- Center of gravity: Point which the weight of a body or system
acts
- Anatomically, the CG is ~ 5 cm anterior to the second sacral
vertebra, or 6 cm below the belly button (slightly higher in males)

- Locations vary due to body proportions

- Influenced by changing body position or limb positions

- Addition of external weight (backpack), will relocate the CG

- Segmentally, each body area contains its own center of gravity

 Factors affecting location of COG

•Age affects the location of COG because it

affects body parts 'mass proportion

•With advanced age, the COG becomes lower

•In newborn, the upper part of the body is

heavier than the lower part the COG is higher
than in adults

Location of COG:
•In newborn: above umbilicus
•At 2 years: at the level of umbilicus
•At 5 years: below the level of umbilicus
•In adults: anterior to the 2ndsacral vertebrae
Center of gravity (COG)

•Location of the COG depends on:

The proportion of body parts
The distribution of fat and muscle
mass in the body
Posture
Structural deformities
External forces (e.g., carrying a
shoulder bag)
 Why Is It Useful to Determine CG?
1. Used to describe the movement of the body
through space
2. Important for stability
3. Important factor in calculation of amount of work
done

Location of Center of Gravity

1. Reaction board method – used for a static position of the
body
- Assume the CG is the fulcrum (balance point) and then
apply the Principle of Levers

2. Segmental method – used for locating CG of a body in

motion
 Balance and Stability
- For balance to be maintained, the CG must remain
over the base of support

- If the CG passes outside the base of support, the

body is off balance in that direction

- If a heavy object is carried close to the CG, there is

less likelihood of a loss of balance
Center of Gravity shifts
during different standing
positions
BASE OF SUPPORT
Area under and in between the object’s support is
know as Base of Support (BOS).

In standing position, the area under the feet

including area between them.

Generally the larger the base of support the more

stable the object will be.
Balance and Stability

- For balance to be maintained, the CG must remain over the base of

support

-If the CG passes outside the base of support, the body is off balance
in that direction

- If a heavy object is carried close to the CG, there is less likelihood of

a loss of balance
 Stability

•Maximize -------stability
Control-------- equilibrium
Achieve----------- balance

•Stability can be enhanced by determining the body’s center of

gravity and changing its position appropriately
Stability increases by:
1. Increasing body mass

2. Increasing base of support size in the direction

of the line of action of an external force

3. Vertically positioning the CG as low as possible

4. Increasing friction between the body and the

surface contacted

5. Horizontally positioning the CG near the edge of

the base of support towards the
oncoming external force
 LINE OF GRAVITY (LOG)
An imaginary vertical line passing through the center
of gravity. It is also known as the line of action of the
force of gravity.

It helps define proper body alignment and posture

using various superficial landmarks

It may shift but should fall within the base of support

to be stable.
 Line of gravity

•In the upright position, the line of gravity

normally passes through the junctions of
the various regions of the vertebral column:

• the skull with the cervical vertebrae

• the cervical with the thoracic vertebrae
• the thoracic with the lumbar vertebrae
• the lumbar vertebrae with the sacrum
• posterior to hip & anterior to knee and
ankle
ALIGNMENT OF BODY SEGMENTS OR BODY SEGMENTS IN RELATION TO
LOG
Through external
auditory meatus and
dens of C2 vertebra
Slightly
anterior to
thoracic spine Through cervico-
thoracic & thoraco-
lumbar junction
Through body’s COG
(anterior to S2
vertebra)
Through
acetabulum
Slightly anterior
or through knee
joint
Through ankle joint
into the ground
1/6/2020
 Definitions

•Balance = the ability to control equilibrium (either

static or dynamic)

•Equilibrium= a state of zero acceleration where

there is no change in the speed or direction of the
body

Stability= the resistance to a change in the body’s

acceleration, or the resistance to a disturbance of
the body’s equilibrium
TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Equilibrium can also be classified according to the Location of COG and
Size of BOS.

It is divided into three types: -

•Stable Equilibrium
•Unstable Equilibrium
•Neutral Equilibrium
 STABLE EQUILIBRIUM
Occurs when an object is in a position where disturbing it
would require its COG to be raised. A simple example is that
of a brick.

When the widest part of the brick is in contact with the

surface (BOS), it is quite stable.

To disturb it, the brick would have to be tipped up in any

direction, thus raising its COG.

The same could be said of a person lying flat on the floor.

 UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM
Occurs when only a slight force is needed to disturb an
object.

Balancing a pencil on its pointed end is a good example.

A similar example is that of a person standing on one leg.

 NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM
Exists when an object’s COG is neither raised nor
lowered when it is disturbed.
A good example is a ball. As the ball rolls across the
floor, its COG remains the same.
A person moving across the room while seated in a
wheelchair demonstrates neutral equilibrium.
 DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
Dynamic equilibrium varies between the neutral and
unstable with activities such as walking, running and
stooping etc.
During all form of locomotion the body strives to
maintain its balance, and all of its postural reflexes
are directed towards this goal.
Equilibrium will be unstable when the base of
support is small and becomes neutral as the BOS
becomes larger.