Pipes and Pipe Joints

1. Introduction.
2. Stresses in Pipes.
3. Design of Pipes.
4. Pipe Joints.
5. Standard Pipe Flanges for Steam.
6. Hydraulic Pipe Joint for High Pressures.
7. Design of Circular Flanged Pipe Joint.
8. Design of Oval Flanged Pipe Joint.
9. Design of Square Flanged Pipe Joint.
1 .Introduction

 The pipes are used for transporting various fluids like water,
steam, different types of gases, oil and other chemicals with or
without pressure from one place to another.

 Cast iron, wrought iron, steel and brass are the materials
generally used for pipes in engineering practice.

 The use of cast iron pipes is limited to pressures of about 0.7

N/mm2 because of its low resistance to shocks which may be
created due to the action of water hammer.
 The pipes used in petroleum industry are generally seamless pipes
made of heat-resistant chrome-molybdenum alloy steel.

 Such type of pipes can resist pressures more than 4

N/mm2 and temperatures greater than 440°C.

 The wrought iron and steel pipes are used chiefly for
conveying steam, air and oil.

 Brass pipes, in small sizes, finds use in pressure

lubrication systems on prime movers.
 2. Stresses in Pipes
 The stresses in pipes due to the internal fluid pressure are
determined by Lame's equation

 According to Lame's equation, tangential stress at any radius x,

 and radial stress at any radius x,

where :
ro
ri
p = Internal fluid pressure in the pipe,
ri = Inner radius of the pipe, and
ro = Outer radius of the pipe.

 The tangential stress is maximum at the inner surface (when x =

ri) of the pipe and minimum at the outer surface (when x = ro) of
the pipe.

Substituting the values of x = ri and x = ro in equation (i),

we find that the maximum tangential stress at the inner surface of
the pipe,
 and minimum tangential stress at the outer surface of the pipe,

The radial stress is maximum at the inner surface of the pipe and
zero at the outer surface of the pipe.

Substituting the values of x = ri and x = ro in equation (ii), we find

that maximum radial stress at the inner surface,

σr(max) = – p (compressive)
and minimum radial stress at the outer surface of the pipe,
σr(min) = 0
The thick cylindrical formula may be applied when:

(a) the variation of stress across the thickness of the pipe is taken
into account,

(b) the internal diameter of the pipe (D) is less than twenty times its
wall thickness ( t ) , i.e.

D/t < 20, and

(c) the allowable stress (σt) is less than six times the pressure inside
the pipe ( p ) i.e.

σt / p < 6.

According to thick cylindrical formula (Lame's equation), wall

thickness of pipe,
where
R = Internal radius of the pipe.
The following table shows the values of allowable tensile stress
(σt ) to be used in the above relations:

Values of allowable tensile stress for pipes of different materials.

Example .1. A cast iron pipe of internal diameter 200 mm and
thickness 50 mm carries water under a pressure of 5 N/mm2.
Calculate the tangential and radial stresses at radius (r) = 100 mm ;
110 mm ; 120 mm ; 130 mm ; 140 mm and 150 mm. Sketch the
stress distribution curves.

Solution. Given : di = 200 mm or ri = 100 mm ; t = 50 mm ; p = 5

N/mm2
We know that outer radius of the pipe,

ro =ri + t = 100 + 50 = 150 mm

Tangential stresses at radius 100 mm, 110 mm, 120 mm, 130
mm, 140 mm and 150 mm

We know that tangential stress at any radius x,

∴ Tangential stress at radius 100 mm (i.e. when x = 100 mm),

Tangential stress at radius 110 mm (i.e. when x = 110 mm),

Tangential stress at radius 120 mm (i.e. when x = 120 mm),

Tangential stress at radius 130 mm (i.e. when x = 130 mm),

Tangential stress at radius 140 mm (i.e. when x = 140 mm),

and tangential stress at radius 150 mm (i.e. when x = 150 mm),

Radial stresses at radius 100 mm, 110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm, 140
mm and 150 mm

We know that radial stress at any radius x,

∴ Radial stress at radius 100 mm (i.e. when x = 100 mm),

Radial stress at radius 110 mm (i.e., when x = 110 mm),

Radial stress at radius 120 mm (i.e. when x = 120 mm),

Radial stress at radius 130 mm (i.e. when x = 130 mm),

Radial stress at radius 140 mm (i.e. when x = 140 mm),

Radial stress at radius 150 mm (i.e. when x = 150 mm),

The stress distribution curves for tangential and radial stresses are
shown in Fig.
3. Design of Pipes
The design of a pipe involves the determination of inside diameter
of the pipe d and its wall thickness t as discussed below:

1. Inside diameter of the pipe.

The inside diameter of the pipe depends upon the quantity of fluid
to be delivered.
Let
D = Inside diameter of the pipe,
v = Velocity of fluid flowing per minute, and
Q = Quantity of fluid carried per minute.

We know that the quantity of fluid flowing per minute,

2. Wall thickness of the pipe.
After deciding upon the inside diameter of the pipe, the thickness
of the wall (t) in order to withstand the internal fluid pressure ( p)
may be obtained by using thin cylindrical or thick cylindrical
formula.
The thin cylindrical formula may be applied when

(a) the stress across the section of the pipe is uniform,

(b) the internal diameter of the pipe (D) is more than twenty times
its wall thickness (t), i.e.
D/t > 20, and

(c) the allowable stress (σt) is more than six times the pressure
inside the pipe (p),
i.e. σt /p > 6.
According to thin cylindrical formula, wall thickness of pipe,

Where
ηl = Efficiency of longitudinal joint.
A little consideration will show that the thickness of wall as obtained
by the above relation is too small. Therefore for the design of pipes, a
certain constant is added to the above relation.

Now the relation may be written as

The value of constant ‘C’, according to Weisback, are given in the
following table.
Example.2. A seamless pipe carries 2400 m3 of steam per hour at a
pressure of 1.4 N/mm2. The velocity of flow is 30 m/s. Assuming the
tensile stress as 40 MPa, find the inside diameter of the pipe and its
wall thickness.

Solution.
Given : Q = 2400 m3/h = 40 m3/min ; p = 1.4 N/mm2; v = 30 m/s =
1800 m/min ; σt = 40 MPa = 40 N/mm2
Inside diameter of the pipe

We know that inside diameter of the pipe,

Wall thickness of the pipe
From Table, we find that for a steel pipe, C = 3 mm.

Therefore wall thickness of the pipe,

 4. Pipe Joints
The pipes are usually connected to vessels from which they
transport the fluid. Since the length of pipes available are limited,
therefore various lengths of pipes have to be joined to suit any
particular installation. There are various forms of pipe joints used
in practice, but most common of them are discussed below.

1. Socket or a coupler joint.

This type of joint is mostly used for pipes

carrying water at low pressure and where the
overall smallness of size is most essential.

Socket or coupler joint

2. Nipple joint.

The disadvantage of this joint is that it

reduces the area of flow.

3. Union joint. Nipple joint.

In order to disengage pipes joined by

a socket, it is necessary to unscrew pipe
from one end. This is sometimes inconvenient
when pipes are long. The union joint, as shown
in Fig, provide the facility of disengaging the Socket or coupler joint
pipes by simply unscrewing a coupler nut.
4. Spigot and socket joint.

 Is chiefly used for pipes which are

buried in the earth.

 Some pipe lines are laid straight as far as

possible. One of the important features
of this joint is its flexibility as it adopts Spigot and socket joint.
itself to small changes in level due to
settlement of earth which takes place
due to climate and other conditions.

5. Expansion joint.
 This joint is used in steam pipes to take up expansion and
contraction of pipe line due to change of temperature.

 Are useful in a long pipe line

 Expansion bends

 The copper corrugated expansion joint, as shown in Fig. (a), is

used on short lines and is satisfactory for limited service. An
expansion joint as shown in Fig. (b) (also known as gland and
stuffing box arrangement), is the most satisfactory when the
pipes are well supported and cannot sag.
Expansion joints.
6. Flanged joint.
It is one of the most widely used pipe joint. A flanged joint may be
made with flanges cast integral with the pipes or loose flanges
welded or screwed. Fig. shows two cast iron pipes with integral
flanges at their ends. The flanges are connected by means of bolts.

Flanged joint.
have seen standardised for pressures up to 2 N/mm2
7. Design of Circular Flanged Pipe Joint
 Consider a circular flanged pipe joint as shown in Fig. In designing
such joints, it is assumed that the fluid pressure acts in between the
flanges and tends to separate them with a pressure existing at the
point of leaking.

 The bolts are required to take up tensile stress in order to keep the
flanges together.

 The effective diameter on which the fluid pressure acts, just at

the point of leaking, is the diameter of a circle touching the bolt
holes D1.
Let this diameter be D1. If d1 is the diameter of bolt hole and Dp is
the pitch circle diameter, then
D1 = Dp – d1
 ∴ Force trying to separate the two flanges,

Let:
n = Number of bolts,
dc = Core diameter of the bolts, and
σt = Permissible stress for the material of the bolts.

∴ Resistance to tearing of bolts

Assuming the value of dc, the value of n may be obtained from
equations (i) and (ii) . The number of bolts should be even because of
the symmetry of the section.

The circumferential pitch of the bolts is given by

In order to make the joint leakproof, the value of pc should be

between

where d1 is the diameter of the bolt hole. Also a bolt of less than 16
mm diameter should never be used to make the joint leakproof.
The thickness of the flange is obtained by considering a segment of
the flange as shown in Fig. (b).

∴ Bending moment on each bolt due to the force F

and resisting moment on the flange

= σb × Z …………………………………(iv)

where σb = Bending or tensile stress for the flange material, and

 1
Z = Section modulus of the cross-section of the flange = x𝑡𝑓2
6

Equating equations (iii) and (iv), the value of tf may be obtained.

The dimensions of the flange may be fixed as follows:

Nominal diameter of bolts, d = 0.75 t + 10 mm

Number of bolts, n = 0.0275 D + 1.6 ...(D is in mm)
Thickness of flange, tf = 1.5 t + 3 mm

Width of flange, B = 2.3 d

Outside diameter of flange, Do = D + 2t + 2B
Pitch circle diameter of bolts, Dp = D + 2t + 2d + 12 mm
 The pipes may be strengthened by providing greater thickness near
t+tf
the flanges
2

Example 3. Find out the dimensions of a flanged joint for a cast iron
pipe 250 mm diameter to carry a pressure of 0.7 N/mm2.

Solution. Given: D = 250 mm ; p = 0.7 N/mm2 From Table 1, we

find that for cast iron, allowable tensile stress, 𝜎t = 14 N/mm2 and
from Table 2, C = 9 mm. Therefore thickness of the pipe,
Other dimensions of a flanged joint for a cast iron pipe may be
fixed as follows:
Nominal diameter of the bolts,

d = 0.75 t + 10 mm = 0.75 × 16 + 10 = 22 mm

Number of bolts,
n = 0.0275 D + 1.6 = 0.0275 × 250 + 1.6 = 8.475 say 10

Thickness of the flanges, tf = 1.5 t + 3 mm = 1.5 × 16 + 3 = 27 mm

Width of the flange, B = 2.3 d = 2.3 × 22 = 50.6 say 52 mm

Outside diameter of the flange,

Do = D + 2t + 2B = 250 + 2 × 16 + 2 × 52 = 386 mm
 Pitch circle diameter of the bolts,

Dp = D + 2t + 2d + 12 mm = 250 + 2 × 16 + 2 × 22 + 12 mm
= 338 mm

Circumferential pitch of the bolts,

In order to make the joint leak proof, the value of pc should be

between
where d1 is the diameter of bolt hole.
Let us take d1 = d + 3 mm = 22 + 3 = 25 mm
Since the circumferential pitch as obtained above (i.e. 106.2 mm) is
within,

therefore the design is satisfactory.

8. Design of Oval Flanged Pipe Joint
Hydraulic pipe joint.
 This type of joint has oval flanges and are fastened by means of two
bolts, as shown in Fig.

 The oval flanges are usually used for small pipes, up to 175 mm
diameter. The flanges are generally cast integral with the pipe ends.

 Such joints are used to carry fluid pressure varying from 5 to 14

N/mm2. Such a high pressure is found in hydraulic applications like
riveting, pressing, lifts etc.
 A spigot and socket is provided for locating the pipe bore in a
straight line.

 A packing of trapezoidal section is used to make the joint leak

proof.

 The thickness of the pipe is obtained as discussed previously.

 The force trying to separate the two flanges has to be resisted by
the stress produced in the bolts.

where D = Internal diameter of the pipe.

 the force tending to separate the flanges due to pressure in the

packing is given by

where D1 = Outside diameter of the packing.

∴ Total force trying to separate the two flanges,

Since an oval flange is fastened by means of two bolts, therefore

load taken up by each bolt is
Fb = F/2.

If dc is the core diameter of the bolts, then

where σtb is the allowable tensile stress for the bolt material
 The thickness of the flange is obtained by considering the flange
to be under bending stresses due to the forces acting in one bolt.

 The maximum bending stress will be induced at the section X-X.

 The bending moment at this section is given by

 Using the bending equation, we have

  where σb =Permissible bending stress for the flange material.

 From the above expression, the value of tf may be obtained, if

b is known.
 The width of the flange is estimated from the layout of the
flange.
 The hydraulic joints with oval flanges are known as
Armstrong's pipe joints.
 Nominal diameter of bolts,
d =0.75 t + 10 mm
 Thickness of the flange,
tf =1.5 t + 3 mm
 Outer diameter of the flange,
Do =D + 2t + 4.6 d
 Pitch circle diameter,
Dp =Do – (3 t + 20 mm)

• In the absence of tables,

Core diameter
nominal diameter =
0.84
Example 4. Design and draw an oval flanged pipe joint for a pipe
having 50 mm bore. It is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 7
N/mm2. The maximum tensile stress in the pipe material is not to
exceed 20 MPa and in the bolts 60 MPa.

Solution. Given: D = 50 mm or R = 25 mm ; p = 7 N/mm2 ; σt = 20

MPa = 20 N/mm2 ; σtb = 60 MPa = 60 N/mm2

First of all let us find the thickness of the pipe (t). According to
Lame's equation, we know that thickness of the pipe,
 Assuming the width of packing as 10 mm, therefore outside
diameter of the packing,

D1 =D + 2 × Width of packing = 50 + 2 × 10 = 70 mm

∴ Force trying to separate the flanges,

 Since the flange is secured by means of two bolts, therefore

load on each bolt,
Fb =F/ 2 = 26 943/2 = 13 471.5 N

 Let dc =Core diameter of bolts.

We know that load on each bolt (Fb),

and nominal diameter of bolts,

 Outer diameter of the flange,
Do =D + 2t + 4.6 d = 50 + 2 × 12 + 4.6 × 22
=175.2 say 180 mm.

 and pitch circle diameter of the bolts,

Dp =Do – (3t + 20 mm) = 180 – (3 × 12 + 20) = 124 mm

The elevation of the flange as shown in Fig. (which is an ellipse)

may now be drawn by taking major axis as Do (i.e. 180 mm) and
minor axis as (Dp – d) i.e. 124 – 22 = 102 mm.
In order to find thickness of the flange (tf), consider the section
X-X. By measurement, we find that the width of the flange at the
section X-X,
 b = 89 mm

and the distance of the section X-X

from the centre line of the bolt,

e = 33 mm

∴ Bending moment at the section

X-X,
 9. Design of Square Flanged Pipe Joint

The design of a square flanged pipe joint, as shown in Fig., is similar

to that of an oval flanged pipe joint except that the load has to be
divided into four bolts. The thickness of the flange may be obtained
by considering the bending of the flange about one of the sections
A-A, B-B, or C-C.
A little consideration will show that the flange is weakest in bending
about section A-A.

Therefore the thickness of the flange is calculated by considering the

bending of the flange, about section A-A.

Example 5. Design a square flanged pipe joint for pipes of internal

diameter 50 mm subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 7 N/mm2.
The maximum tensile stress in the pipe material is not to exceed 21
MPa and in the bolts 28 MPa.

Solution. Given: D = 50 mm or R = 25 mm ; p = 7 N/mm2 ; σt = 21

MPa = 21 N/mm2 ; σtb = 28 MPa = 28 N/mm2
First of all, let us find the thickness of the pipe. According to Lame's
equation, we know that thickness of the pipe,

Assuming the width of packing as 10 mm, therefore outside diameter

of the packing,

D1 = 50 + 2 × Width of packing = 50 + 2 × 10 = 70 mm

∴ Force trying to separate the flanges,

Since this force is to be resisted by four bolts, therefore force on
each bolt,

Fb = F / 4 = 26 943 / 4 = 6735.8 N

Let dc = Core diameter of the bolts.

We know that force on each bolt (Fb),

and nominal diameter of the bolts,

The axes of the bolts are arranged at the corners of a square of such
size that the corners of the nut clear the outside of the pipe.

∴ Minimum length of a diagonal for this square,

L = Outside diameter of pipe + 2 × Dia. of bolt = D + 2t + 2d

= 50 + (2 × 12) + (2 × 22) = 118 mm

and side of this square,

The sides of the flange must be of sufficient length to accomodate
the nuts and bolt heads without overhang.

Therefore the length L2 may be kept as (L1 + 2d ) i.e.

L2 = L1 + 2d = 83.5 + 2 × 22 = 127.5 mm

The bending about section A-A will take place due to the force in
two bolts.

∴ Bending moment due to the force in two bolts (i.e. due to 2Fb),
 Water pressure acting on half the flange

= 2 Fb = 2 × 6735.8 = 13 472 N

The flanges are screwed with pipe having metric threads of 4.4 threads
in 10 mm (i.e. pitch of the threads is 10/4.4 = 2.28 mm).

Nominal or major diameter of the threads

= Outside diameter of the pipe = D + 2t = 50 + 2 × 12 = 74 mm

∴ Nominal radius of the threads = 74 / 2 = 37 mm

Depth of the threads

= 0.64 × Pitch of threads = 0.64 × 2.28 = 1.46 mm
 ∴ Core or minor radius of the threads
= 37 – 1.46 = 35.54 mm

∴ Mean radius of the arc from A-A over which the load due to
fluid pressure may be taken to be concentrated

The centroid of this arc from A-A

= 0.6366 × Mean radius = 0.6366 × 36.27 = 23.1 mm

∴ Bending moment due to the water pressure,

M2 = 2 Fb × 23.1 = 2 × 6735.8 × 23.1 = 311 194 N-mm

Since the bending moments M1 and M2 are in opposite directions,
therefore
Net resultant bending moment on the flange about section A-A,

M = M1 – M2 = 562 440 – 311 194 = 251 246 N-mm

Width of the flange at the section A-A,

b = L2 – Outside diameter of pipe = 127.5 – 74 = 53.5 mm

Let tf = Thickness of the flange in mm.

Note: As soon as the size of pipe is determined, the rest of the dimensions for the
flanges, bolts, bolt holes,
thickness of pipe may be fixed from standard tables. In practice, dimensions are not
calculated on a rational
basis. The standards are evolved on the basis of long practical experience, suitability and
interchangeability. The
calculated dimensions as discussed in the previous articles do not agree with the
standards. It is of academic
interest only that the students should know how to use fundamental principles in
determining various dimensions
e.g. wall thickness of pipe, size and number of bolts, flange thickness. The rest of the
dimensions may be
obtained from standard tables or by empirical relations