Lecture - 11

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
EQUILIBRIUM CARRIER CONCENTRATION- 9
 Ranges of Carrier Concentration

nn0
(log)

Nd
Extrinsic
range
1/Ti 1/T

•Here in the above plot √NcNv exp (-Eg/2KT) will hold good in the range
where the concentration is exactly equal to the intrinsic concentration.

•Somewhere near the border obviously this formula will not be valid, hence in
this case an accurate estimation has to be needed.

•Similarly, in the partial ionization range the formula is

√NcNd exp (-Eion/2KT) valid, where Eion is ionization energy.
 nn0
(log)

Nd
Extrinsic
range
1/Ti 1/T

•The result is considered regarding the band diagram and it is in the

intrinsic range.

•Then in the extrinsic range from the point of view of device operation
the concentration is equal to the doping level. This is when considering
an n-type semiconductor.

•The concentration here is on a log scale and this is on a reciprocal of

temperature scale.
 On what factors Ti depends?
• What is the significance of this temperature
(Ti)?
 Calculation of the Intrinsic Temperature
Total contribution of
thermal generation as
well as impurity
nno ionization
Impurity
ionization

ni
Thermal
generation
T

Plot of nn0 vs temp. from linear plot the definition of intrinsic

concentration has been found much more easily.
 Calculation of the Intrinsic Temperature

nno
Contribution of
Nd Impurity ionization

ni

Ti T
Contribution of
Thermal generation

In the above plot the Intrinsic range of temperature is defined by using the
linear plot of concentration versus temperature.
 This is the curve representing contribution of the
impurity and ni is the term representing the
nno

effect of thermal generation and more

A specifically this is intrinsic concentration. Now A
Nd is the point where the intrinsic concentration
becomes equal to the doping Ti, this point is
ni defined as the intrinsic point. Hence, the
intrinsic point is defined in terms of the doping
level and intrinsic concentration where Nd = ni..
Ti T
 •The formula therefore would be Nd = ni at Ti
= √Nc Nv ex(–Eg/2KTi) and after
transformation we get Ti = Eg/(2K × ln √Nc
Nv/Nd )

•Two important physical parameters on which

Ti the intrinsic temperature depends is the
nno

energy gap Eg and doping level Nd. According

to this formula Ti should increase with energy
gap. This is physically correct because if the
Nd energy gap is large that means it is referred to
the higher temperatures and generate the ni
ni corresponding to the doping level.
•Similarly, according to the formula again if
Nd is large the denominator is small and
Ti T therefore the fraction is large which means
that Ti is large. This is also correct because if
Nd = ni (Ti) Nd is large that means we have to go to the
= √NcNv exp (-Eg/2KT) higher temperatures to generate ni. So
qualitatively it appears that the formula is
Ti = correct. In terms of this formula one can
calculate the intrinsic temperatures. In the
next slide we will discuss the comparison of
the intrinsic temperature of Si & GaAs
Intrinsic Temperature of Gallium Arsenide And Silicon

•Gallium Arsenide has higher energy gap of

1.4 ev. It has higher intrinsic temperature as
compared to silicon whose energy gap is 1.1
ev.

• At 1013/cm3 doping level the intrinsic

temperature for silicon is around 450K
roughly whereas that of GaAs is about
650K. The intrinsic temperature of GaAs is
higher by about 200K. At 2(1015)/cm3
doping level, the intrinsic temperature of
GaAs is 1200K whereas that of silicon is
about 700K. That is how the intrinsic
temperature depends on the energy gap of
the semiconductor and doping level. The
intrinsic temperature is important in
deciding the extrinsic range.
So, if we want to use a device at
higher temperatures or for some
reason if the device is going to
dissipate large amount of power
like a power device and therefore
its temperature is likely to rise and
then it is clear that semiconductors
with higher energy gap are more
suitable for such applications than
semiconductors with lower energy
gap. This is the main importance of
intrinsic temperature.
 Estimation of Fermi Level

•We know that n0, the equilibrium

concentration on electrons is given by
Nc exp(– Ec – Ef/KT). So from here we
n0=Nc exp –(Ec-Ef)/2KT can get the relation Ef
•Here n0 = Nd if there is complete
Ef= Ec – KT ln (Nc/ n0)
ionization. Now, the range is extrinsic
range. So this is how the Fermi-level
p0= Nv exp –(Ef-Ev)/2KT
can be located in terms of the electron
concentration. To locate the Fermi-
Ef=Ev + KT ln (Nv/p0) level in terms of the hole
concentration, instead of n0 we will use
the formula for p0 where p0 = Nv exp(–
Ef – Ev/KT which results in Ef = Ev + KT
ln Nv/P0.
 •So the Fermi-level is located above Ev by KT ln
Nv/po value in terms of the hole concentration.
Here this formula looks at the Fermi-level with
respect to the band edges Ec and Ev. One can also
locate the Fermi-level with respect to the intrinsic
level of the Fermi-level in a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor. This is important because we
n0=Nc exp –(Ec-Ef)/2KT know that the intrinsic semiconductor hole
concentration is equal to electron concentration
and Fermi-level is at the middle of the energy gap.
Ef= Ec – KT ln Nc/n0
•In a doped semiconductor the concentration will
p0= Nv exp –(Ef-Ev)/2KT deviate from the concentration in an intrinsic
semiconductor depending on the doping and
Ef=Ev + KT ln (Nv/p0) therefore the Fermi-level is deviating. So how
much does a Fermi-level deviate from the position
in the intrinsic semiconductor because of doping?
We can relate Ef to Ei, We know the relation n0 =
Nc exponential – Ec – Ef/KT. In addition we can
write the relation ni = Nc exp of Ec – Ei/KT it is a
negative sign and now we can take the ratio of n0
and ni.
 • If we take the ratio of n0 and ni then we will
find that the relationship will be Ef = Ei + KT
ln n0/ni.
n0=Nc exp –(Ec-Ef)/2KT
• So if it is an n-type semiconductor then n0 > ni.
The Fermi-level is above Ei;
Ef= Ec – KT ln Nc/n0

p0= Nv exp –(Ef-Ev)/2KT • similarly in terms of hole concentration we

will get Ef = Ei – KT ln p0/pi. So the Fermi-level
in a p-type semiconductor when p0 > pi is
Ef=Ev + KT ln (Nv/p0) below Ei.

• This is how we can locate the Fermi-level in

terms of the electron hole concentrations.
 Energy Band Diagram
•Suppose it is a n-type semiconductor then
the position of the Ef is below Ec and it is
above Ei. So the difference Ef – Ei is given by
KT ln(n0/ni) is this formula, so Ef – Ei = KT
ln (n0/ni). So alternately we can locate Ef
EC from the conduction band edge and it is
given by KT ln(Nc/n0) . This is n-type. Now
Ef we can similarly write relations for Fermi-
level in a p-type semiconductor.
Ei
•Now, using this formula if we estimate the
Fermi–levels in silicon for various boron
doped and phosphorus doped crystals in
the extrinsic range what kind of crystals we
Ev will have?

n type •So in the extrinsic level we can replace

n0/Nd for phosphorous doped silicon which
Ef= Ec – KT ln Nc/n0 is the doping level. So this is under the
assumption of complete ionization of the
impurity and neglect of the thermal
generation.
 •Here n0 is approximately equal to Nd in
a n-type semi conductor in the extrinsic
range.So we are interested in estimating
Fermi-level in the extrinsic range
EC because that is the range in which the
devices operate.
Ef
•Therefore our relations would be Ef =
Ei Ec - kT ln Nc/Nd or alternately Ef = Ev +
KT ln Nv/Na and this will be in a p-type
semiconductor,
•Now we could also use the formula
Ev Ef = Ei + KT ln n0/ ni so here n0 will be
replaced by Nd for n-type and here p0 will be
replaced by Na and pi is nothing but ni so we
could write pi or ni it does not make a
difference. This is valid for n-type and p-
type. When we make an estimation using
this at room temperature the calculation
looks something like this as shown in the
slide here.
Fermi-level in Silicon
•The plot is the Fermi-level plot within the
extrinsic range. So we find at higher
temperatures the plot is the Fermi-level
plotted with respect to Ei so Ef – Ei for both
n-type and p-type silicon.

•Here in the figure, the x-axis is

temperature. So we have a behavior both as
a function of temperature and doping. It has
been found that in high temperatures the
Fermi-level tends to the intrinsic level both
for n-type as well as for p-type.

•The intrinsic temperature is higher for

higher doping and that is why this
particular Fermi-level for 1017 per cm3
doping has not yet reached the intrinsic
level because the doping is higher. At the
other end the Fermi-level for all doping
levels tends to be at the middle of the region
between the conduction band edge Ec and
the donor level for the n-type semi
conductor.
 •Qualitatively we located the Fermi-level in
an n-type semiconductor as per this
diagram. So, for T = 0 the Fermi-level is at
middle of Ec and Ed, it is at the midpoint of
this difference here irrespective of the
EC
doping level.
Ed + + + + + + + + + +
•Now the relationship has not been derived
Ef
exactly but here it has been shown that the
Ei Fermi-level in a n-type semiconductor at T
= 0 has to be above Ed but below Ec. Now if
we make exact calculations using formulae
and so on we will get it at the mid point.
0 T
•Now, similarly for p-type silicon the Fermi-levels
will tend towards the middle of the accepted level
and the valence band edge. Now to complete the
understanding of this diagram the Ec and Ev have
also been shown to vary with temperature so Ec –
Ev that is the difference between Ec and Ev that is
the energy gap seems to reduce with temperature.
 •This is true for many semiconductors
EC that the energy gap reduces with
temperature. So here in this slide it has
Ed + + + + + + + + + + been shown that the variation for silicon
Ef because of the reduction in energy gap
Ei the intrinsic concentration that we
calculate from the formula √Nc Nv ex (–
Eg/2KT) will be slightly higher than that
we estimate assuming a constant energy
gap of 1.12v.
0 T

•After considering the Fermi-level , now

the next slide will be the on topic of
Compensated Semiconductors.
 Compensated Semiconductor
•Compensated semiconductor means both
phosphorous and boron doping. Now we want to
analysis at the behavior from the energy band point
of view. So specifically for compensated
semiconductors the charge balance equation can be
written as no + Na- = po + Nd+, here n0 is electron
concentration, p0 is hole concentration, Na ― is the

n0 + Na- = p0 + Nd+ ionized acceptor concentration, Nd + is the ionized

donor concentration.

n0= p0 + Nd+ - Na- •So, according to this formula for the n-type
semiconductor it is introduces the acceptor
impurities, so we start with a phosphorous doped
semiconductor and we increase the concentration of
boron impurity from 0 onwards, now the behavior
can be analysis using this formula no = po + Nd+ -Na- .

•According to the charge balance equation on

compensated semiconductors earlier, this has been
clearly shown that the electron concentration starts
reducing as we start raising Na– from 0 onwards. Now
in the next slide it has been discussed the particular
behavior from the energy band point of view.
 In the figure Ec is conduction band, Ev is valance band .
The “+” sign signifies the donor impurities. Assume the
range is an extrinsic range or we are working around
room temperature and the donors are phosphorous, so
all of them are ionized. So Nd+ is actually Nd is shown
EC here by the arrows in the figure. Therefore each of
these donors have given away an electron which has
gone to the conduction band.
Ed + + + + + + Now there is another process that is the process of
thermal generation which will be shown as an arrow
going from valence band to conduction band and this is
thermal generation and but as we know that the
contribution of thermal generation to the concentration
around room temperature is very small, hence our
objective should be to concentrate only on the impurity
ionization.
Ev
Assume, we want to add the acceptor atoms. Here the
number of positive signs in some way indicates the
Na <Nd concentration of donor impurities. Thus smaller
number of negative signs shows that Na < Nd.

Now , we have to consider the addition of acceptor

atoms. According to the energy band model we know
that one of the postulates is that electrons occupy the
lowest energy states available to them.
The moment we have introduced the acceptor
impurities we have introduced allowed states for the
electrons here below the donor level.
 The moment we have introduced the acceptor
EC impurities we have introduced allowed states
for the electrons here below the donor level.
+ + ++ + + What is going to happen is the electrons from
these donor levels instead of jumping up to
conduction band they would find it more
convenient to jump down on to this acceptor
level. So each acceptor level is going to accept a
electron from the donor impurity and so these
Ev electrons from donor impurity instead of
becoming free will get trapped at the acceptors
side. This is how the acceptor atoms are
reducing the concentration of electrons in the
n-type semiconductor.
 Now if Na becomes more than Nd, all the
arrows will go away so electrons will jump
down on to the acceptor side instead of
jumping up from the impurity the donor level.
EC So all these impurities have been totally
+ + + + + + Ed compensated by the acceptor atoms and now
these acceptor atoms are there which will
accept an electron from the valence band edge
and as a result will give raise to holes. Now the
semiconductor has changed polarity and it has
become p-type rather than n-type because it
has now got holes. This is how we can analysis
Ea Ev at the behavior of compensated
semiconductors from the energy band point of
view and understand the particular
Na >Nd phenomenon of compensation.
If the n-type doping is more than p-type doping
we get an n-type semiconductor if the p-type
doping is more than n-type doping we get a p-
type semiconductor. In the next slide we will
discuss how the carrier concentration is
estimated and how the Fermi-level is located.
What happens when Na=Nd?
 Estimation of Carrier Concentration and Fermi- level

Q:What are the majority and minority carrier concentrations in

silicon doped with 1016cm3 atoms of boron and 5×1015cm3
atoms of phosphorous, at 300 K and 600 K? Check the
assumptions made in the calculation. So basically we want to
estimate carrier concentration in a compensated semiconductor
at two different temperatures by checking the assumptions
which have been made. Let us see the assumptions which we
make.
 Assumptions

The assumptions that we make normally while estimating

carrier concentration are:
1. Complete Impurity Ionization
2. Negligible Thermal Generation
3. Boltzmann Approximation.

Now in the next slide onwards we will see where these

approximations or assumptions are made for simplifying
the calculation.
•Let us start with the carrier concentration at 300 K.
•pp0= (Na-Nd) = 1016 – 5x1015 = 5 x 1015
np0= ni2 / pp0
= (1.5 x 1010)2 / 5 x 1015 = 4.5 x 104 / cm3

np0= 4.5 x 104 << Na – Nd = 5 x 1015 / cm-3

Thermal generation is negligible

•First we need to estimate the majority carrier concentration and for this we use the
charge balance equation. We note that since the boron concentration of 1016cm3 is
more than the phosphorous concentration of 5 ×1015 it is a p-type semiconductor.

•We write the charge balance equation as pp0 which is the whole concentration in the p-
type semiconductor = Na minus the ionized acceptor concentration minus the ionized
donor concentration plus the concentration of thermally generated carriers which is also
the minority carrier concentration (pp0 = (Na – Nd+)+ np0.

•When we make the assumption of complete impurity ionization this minus and plus
signs drop out so that is a simplification. Further when we make the assumption of
neglecting the thermal generation that is this particular term np0 is much less than this
term Na – Nd that is the meaning of neglecting thermal generation so we remove this
term also.
•According to the previous slide it has been discussed that how the equation
gets simplified for the majority carrier concentration and so the result is =
1016 – 5 × 1015 which is = 5 – 1015cm3 so that is the hole concentration.

•Now the electron concentration np0 = ni2/pp0. Now ni at 300 K is 1.5 ×1010cm3
so (1.5×1010)2/5×1015 and the result is 4.5 × 104/cm3 which is the minority
carrier concentration. Having obtained these concentrations now we must
check the assumptions.

•For example, suppose we want to check the assumption of negligible thermal

generation. Hence we need to check whether np0 as obtained here is much less
than Na – Nd which is obtained here so this is indeed the case.
•So since np0 = 44.5 ×104 < Na – Nd = 5 ×1015cm3.

•Here also the unit is per cm3 hence thermal generation is negligible.

•We have to check the assumption of negligible thermal generation at 300 K.

•Now we have to check the assumption of
impurity ionization.

• To check that we will have to locate the

Fermi-level because we know the fraction Na-
/Na is the number of occupied states at the
energy level Ea.

•So this fraction is given by 1/1+ exp (Ea – Ef

/KT). Similarly Nd+/Nd is the number of
unoccupied states at the energy level Ed. This is 1
– 1/1 + exp (Ed – Ef/KT). Ed is the donor level
corresponding to Nd, Ea is a acceptor level
corresponding to Na. If we know the location of
Fermi-level then we can find out these fractions
and check whether 39.01 Na―/Na = 1 and whether
Nd+/Nd = 1 either equal to or close to 1.
 Energy Band Diagram
1014 / cm3 0.045 ev
EC
+ + + + + + + + + +
Ed

Ei
5x 1016 / cm3 Ef
Ea
Ev
0.045 ev
•Ec , Ev and Ed has been shown into the above plot. The acceptor level corresponding to
boron (nearer to valance band) is Ea. Since it is a p-type semiconductor. Fermi-level Ef
will be close to the valence band edge than conduction band edge that is away from the
intrinsic level and this is Ei. So let us say the Fermi-level is somewhere here, we do not
know exactly where it is but we will now locate it shortly, it will be below Ei.
•Since this is a p-type semiconductor it will be useful to locate the Fermi-level either with
respect to the valance band edge or with respect to Ei but not with respect to conduction
band edge.
 • From the formula we know that
1014 / the difference is KT ln Nv/pp0. This
0.045 is where we are using the
cm3 ev EC Boltzmann approximation now to
+ + + + + + + + + + Ed estimate the location of the Fermi-
level. Incidentally the Boltzmann
approximation was also used
Ei when we estimated the minority
5x 1016 / Ef carrier concentration from ni2 by
cm3 Ea majority carrier concentration
Ev formula and this is because
minority carrier concentration ×
0.045 majority carrier concentration =
ev Na2 or pn = Na 2 where this
particular relation comes only
after we make a Boltzmann
approximation.

•Coming back here the location of the Fermi-level with respect to Ev can be
obtained by using this formula KT ln Nv/pp0. Once we know that we can make the
calculation of the ionized impurities because we know these distances Ea – Ev =
0.045 volt. Similarly this difference is also 0.045 volts. So if we want Ed – Ef then it
will be this difference and if we want Ea – Ef it will correspond to this difference.
These are the two differences we want. Once we know this difference we can
estimate the other two. Now to calculate the value of KT ln Nv/pp0 , the estimated
value will be 5 ×1015/cm3 under our assumptions and Nv is 1019/cm3 and this KT =
0.026 volts.
 •So if we substitute all these values and
then estimate this particular difference
1014 / 0.045 it will turn out to be equal to 0.198
cm3 ev EC electron volts which is the difference.
Ed So as a result this difference is 0.153
+++ +++++++
electron volts. Now we can try to
estimate this relation Na―/Na which
Ei will be = 1/1+ exp (Ea – Ef/KT). This
5x 1016 / Ef will be 1/1 + exp – 0.153/0.026 and
cm3 Ea the final value will be 1―2.78×10-3. So
Ev the value 2.78×10-3 is very small
compared to 1 so Na―/Na is
0.045 approximately equal to 1 and complete
ev ionization of acceptor impurities is
justified.

•Now similarly we can do an estimation of Nd+/Nd. However we need not do a

calculation again to check whether this is indeed close to 1 because we know
Ed – Ef /KT where Ed – Ef is the difference which is definitely much larger than
Ef – Ea which means that the term here Ed – Ef would be much greater than
0.153 and therefore the term again would be much less than 2.78 ×10-3.
 •So as a result we can definitely say
if the acceptor impurities in a p-type
semiconductor like boron doped
1014 / 0.045 semiconductor are ionized then
cm3 ev EC definitely the donor impurities
+++ +++++++ Ed present in the p-type semiconductor
will also be completely ionized. So
we need not do a calculation again
Ei for the phosphorus atoms or donor
5x 1016 / Ef impurities. With that we have
cm3 Ea checked and justified the
Ev assumption of complete ionization.
0.045 Now is Boltzmann approximation
justified because that is a third
ev
assumption we have made so that
can also be seen very easily as Ef –
Ev is 0.198 electron volts should be
three times greater than KT. Now
3KT in this case at room
temperature is .078 electron volts.
 Since .198 electron volts is greater than
0.078 electron volts the Boltzmann
approximation is justified and is valid. If the
boron doping was higher slowly we can see
that the Ef will start moving close to Ev and
1014 / 0.045 then there is a likelihood of the Boltzmann
cm3 ev approximation getting violated. But as it is
EC we see that Boltzmann approximation is
+++ +++++++ Ed justified. Now even before actually making
accurate calculation of this particular
fraction Na-/Na once we have located the
Fermi-level here we can get a feel for the
Ei
fact that the acceptor impurities and the
5 x 1016 / Ef
donor impurities are fully ionized because
cm3 Ea Ef is above Ea, and using the Fermi-Dirac
fraction we know that most of the levels
Ev
below Ef will be occupied and most of the
0.045 levels which are far away from Ef on the top
will be unoccupied. That is how donor
ev
impurities are fully ionized and acceptor
impurities also are fully ionized once we
locate the Fermi-level and even without
making a numerical estimation.
.
 •Now we can repeat the same procedure
for 600 Kelvin. However we need not
check again whether complete ionization
1014 / 0.045 will be justified at 600 K by calculation
cm3 ev because we know that at 300 K if the
EC impurities are ionized at 600 K they will
+++ +++++++ Ed definitely be ionized. Similarly, even for
the Boltzmann approximation one need
not check again because we know that as
the temperature increases the Fermi-level
Ei
is likely to move closer and closer to Ei. So
5 x 1016 / Ef
this difference between Ef and Ev is likely
cm3 Ea to increase.
•Basically the assumption that is likely to
Ev
be violated is the neglect of thermal
generation which is the important
0.045
assumption that we will have to check.
ev
 •At 600 K again consider that the neglecting
in thermal generation and assuming
At 600 K complete impurity ionization we will get ppo
as same as at 300 K and that is 5×1015/cm3.
Pp0= (Na-Nd) = 5 x 1015 / cm3 Now, when we want to estimate the npo that
is electron concentration we will have to
np0 = estimate ni at 600 K . To estimate this we
must estimate ni so let us estimate ni at 600
K.

•Here ni at 600 K we can estimate in terms of ni at 300 K as follows.

so ni(600K)/ni(300K) = (600/300)1.5 exp(– Eg/2K)×(1/600 –
1/300) where we take the 300 out so that 2K(T) corresponding to
300 we know is 0.026eV. We can write as exp – Eg/2 × 0.026
((300/600) – 1). This is the way we must rewrite the term because
now this part can be calculated easily instead of calculating the
particular term from Boltzmann constant and the temperature of
300 K or simply calculating the term by energy gap and Boltzmann
constant and then multiplying by the term, we bring that 300 K of
room temperature out so that 2KT can be written as 0.026.
 Now we can simplify and the result would be
2×1015/cm3. we have substituted the particular term
Eg as 1.12eV and when we substitute this as 1.12eV
we get 2 × 1015/cm3. In practice however ni at 600 K,
At 600 K the actual value will be about 5 × 1015/cm3 if we
include the reduction in Eg with temperature so this
Pp0= (Na-Nd) = 5 x 1015 / cm3 is a more realistic value.
However we can estimate npo as 2(1015)2/5 × 1015
np0 = and the result is 8 × 1014/cm3.
Now in this case that the npo is not really very small
compared to Na – Nd. In other words this is definitely
more than 1/10th of this and thermal generation is
not really negligible. In other words we must take
into account thermal generation while estimating the
majority carrier concentration.
In fact as we have said 2 × 1015 is an approximate
value which neglects the reduction in energy gap at
higher temperature. If we take the energy gap
reduction in account then ni will be 5 × 1015 and then
the minority carrier concentration npo will also turn
out to be the same as majority carrier concentration
therefore it is almost an intrinsic semiconductor.
Hence, to estimate the thermal generation we write
npo is not much less Na – Nd hence thermal generation
should be taken into account.
 •So if we want to take that into
2x 1015 / cm3 account then we have to use the
quadratic formula that is Na – Nd plus
here we will have the npo while
Pp0 = [1+ calculating ppo and that quadratic
formula is Na – Nd/2(1 + √1 + 4ni2/(
= 5.7 x 1015 / cm3
Na – Nd)2). So we have written down
this particular relation in a slightly
= ni2 / ppo
different form earlier. If we substitute
the various terms the value will turn
= 7 x 1015 / cm3
out to be 5.7 × 1015/cm3 and then if
we calculate npo using this value we
will get 7 × 1015/cm3. So here we
have used ni as 2 × 1015/cm3. In this
way we can estimate the carrier
concentrations at 600 K.

•As we know from earlier that the complete impurity ionization is already justified
and we need not check Boltzmann approximation because it will be valid. So this is
how we can estimate the Fermi-level and the concentration and derive the
information that we want to know about the semiconductor.
 Impurity Levels in Silicon

•All impurities do not behave like boron and phosphorous. Their ionization energies are not so
small as 0.045eV.

•The impurities shown in the above plot are antimony, phosphorous, arsenic, carbon, gold, boron,
aluminum and gallium.

•The positive sign indicates Donor impurity or donor level and negative sign is the Acceptor level.

•Further the number in the plot indicates the distance of this particular level from the nearest
band edge.

•So, for example this 0.25 would mean the distance of this particular carbon level from Ec. On the
other hand 0.29 would mean the distance of this particular level associated with gold from Ev.
•Some impurities have small ionization energies like antimony, phosphorous, arsenic,
boron, aluminum and gallium. So it is donor level close to conduction band edge or
acceptor level close to valence band edge. These kinds of impurities can be very useful
in changing the carrier concentration because they get ionized very easily and they are
used to change the concentration or resistivity of silicon and such impurities are called
Shallow Impurities.

•On the other hand you have what are called Deep Impurities. These are the impurities
such as carbon where ionization energy is large. The word “deep” implies that the
impurity is located much inside as compared to the relevant band edge and shallow
means it is close to the relevant band edge.
•So we can conclude here that it is not necessary that donor level should always be close to
the conduction band edge.

•Donor level far away from the conduction band edge as it is happening in carbon.

•And similarly as it is happening in gold the acceptor impurity is far away from the valence
band edge so these are deep impurities.

•It is not necessary that impurity should give rise to only one level. In carbon which gives rise
to two donor levels at two different locations in the energy gap.

•It is not necessary that an impurity should be only donor type or only acceptor type.

•Gold introduces both donor level as well as an acceptor level. So impurities which have both
types of levels donor and acceptor are called Amphoteric Impurities. So deep impurities like
gold and many others are useful in altering the transient response of the semiconductor and
on excess carriers that cannot change the resistivity because their ionization energy is large
but they can change the transient response.
 Some Constants to remember

1 A = 10-8 cm
10000 A = 1 μm
KT=0.026 ev at 300K
1 ev= 1.6x10-19 J
m0=9.11x10-27 g
ε0 = 8.85 x 10-14 F/ cm
c= 3 x 1010 cm/s
λ (1ev quantum) = 1.24 μm
h = 6.626 x 10-34 J-s
Ionization energy = 0.045 ev for P and B in Si
Any Question?