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Lecture 5

Os Lecture 5

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Adnan Akhtar
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45 views45 pages

Lecture 5

Os Lecture 5

Uploaded by

Adnan Akhtar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Data Communication & Computer

Networks

Lecture 5
Physical Layer: Data & Signals

1
Physical Layer

2
Physical Layer Topics to Cover

Signals
Digital Transmission
Analog Transmission
Multiplexing
Transmission Media

3
Analog & Digital

 Data can be analog or digital. The term


analog data refers to information that is
continuous; digital data refers to information
that has discrete states. Analog data take on
continuous values. Digital data take on
discrete values.

4
Note

To be transmitted, data must be


transformed to electromagnetic signals.

5
Note

Data can be analog or digital.


Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.

6
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.


Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.

7
Analog Vs Digital

8
Analog Signals

9
Sine Wave

10
Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is


the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.

11
Bandwidth

12
Digital Signals

13
Digital Signals

 In addition to being represented by an analog


signal, information can also be represented
by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be
encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as
zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send
more than 1 bit for each level.

14
Digital Signal

15
Bit Rate & Bit Interval (contd.)

16
Bit Interval and Bit Rate
Example
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the
duration of each bit (bit interval)

Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.
Bit interval = 1/ 2000 s = 0.000500 s
= 0.000500 x 106 ms = 500 ms

17
Note
The bit rate and the bandwidth are
proportional to each other.

18
Analog Vs Digital

19
Analog versus digital signals

20
Low Pass & Band Pass

21
Example 3.26

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium


and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2
is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half


the power.
22
Data Rate Limits

24
Data Rate Limits

 A very important consideration in data


communications is how fast we can send data, in bits
per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on
three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

25
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

 Defines theoretical maximum bit rate for


Noiseless Channel:

 Bit Rate=2 X Bandwidth X log2L

26
Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Bit Rate = 2  3000  log2 2 = 6000 bps

27
Example 8
Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a signal
with four signal levels (for each level, we send two bits).
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as:

Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log2 4 = 12,000 bps

28
Note

Increasing the levels of a signal may


reduce the reliability of the system.

29
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

 Defines theoretical maximum bit rate for


Noisy Channel:

 Capacity=Bandwidth X log2(1+SNR)

30
Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value
of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words,
the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this
channel the capacity is calculated as

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = B log2 (1 + 0)

= B log2 (1) = B  0 = 0

31
Example
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3KHz. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162)


= 3000 log2 (3163)
C = 3000  11.62 = 34,860 bps

32
Example
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?

Solution

First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper


limit.
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the
number of signal levels.
6 Mbps = 2  1 MHz  log2 L  L = 8

33
Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the


upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.

34
Transmission Impairments

35
Transmission Imapairments

 Signals travel through transmission media,


which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that
the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium. What is sent is not what is received.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation,
distortion, and noise.

36
Transmission Impairments

37
Signal Distortion

attenuation

distortion

noise

38
Performance

 One important issue in networking is the


performance of the network—how good is it?

39
Performance

 Bandwidth
 Throughput
 Latency (Delay)
 Bandwidth-Delay Product

40
Throughput

41
Propagation Time

42
Note

The bandwidth-delay product defines


the number of bits that can fill the link.

43
Bandwidth Delay Product

44
Readings

 Chapter 3 (B.A Forouzan)


 Section 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6

45
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