Instrumentation and Control

ChE-404

Dr. Khalid Mahmood

Course Outline (Instrument Part)

Instruments are our eyes

 Fundamentals of Electrical Technology and
digital logic employed in the measurement
 Review of Scientific principles employed in instruments
 Parts of Instruments: sensor, modifier, and recorder
 Dynamic and static properties of Instruments
 Selection and Calibration of Instruments
 Instruments Identification and Line Symbols
 Available technology of instrumentation for:
(a) Temperature
(b) Pressure, Load
(c) Level
(d) Flow
(e) Others ( Weight, Composition, pH etc.)
(f) Transducers
(g) Advanced measurement devices employing piezoelectric current, ultrasonic, laser,
microwave
 Installation and Installation Costs
 Case Studies
Course Outline (Control Part)

 Introduction and significance of control

 Feedback and feed forward control

 Design and hardware elements of control

 Dynamics of first and second order systems

 Overall transfer function testability

 Controllers (P, PI, PID, etc.) and final control elements

 Representation of control systems

 Multiple control loops

 Cascade, ratio, over-riding control

 Introduction to stability of chemical processes

 Computer control

 Case study: development of control scheme of complete plant

Books

 Lesson in Industrial Instrumentation, by Tony R. Kuphaldt.

Volume 2, 2008.

 Principle of Industrial Instrumentation and Control Systems, by Chennakesava R.

Alavala. 2009.

 Chemical Process Control; an Introduction to Theory & Practice, by G.

Stephanopoulos.

 Carlos A. Smith and Armando B. Corripio; “Principles and Practices of Automatic

Process Control”, 3rd Edition, 2005, John Wiley and Sons Inc.

 Seborg Edgar and Mellichap Doyle; “Process Dynamics and Control” 3rd Edition,
2007, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Administrative Instructions

 According to institute policy, 75% attendance is mandatory to appear in the mid

and final examination. (With No Exception)

 Assignments must be submitted as per instructions mentioned in the assignments.

 For queries, kindly follow the office hours (10:00 AM to 12:00 PM) in order to
avoid any inconvenience.
Grading POlicy

Assessment Items Percentage

Quizzes 20
Assignments & Class participation 10
Midterm Exam 30
Final Exam 40
Instrumentation

 It is defined as the art and science of measurement and

control of process variables within a production or
manufacturing area.

 A world without instruments is like going back to stone

age. Today, we find instruments at Home & work place,
and this was possible only because of instrumentation
science.

 It is the multi-disciplinary stream and covers subjects

from various branches such as chemical, mechanical,
electrical, electronics and computers.
Scope of Instrumentation

 All manufacturing industry such as steel, oil, petrochemicals,

power and defense production with instrumentation department is
manned and managed by instrumentation engineers.

 Automation is the job of instrumentation engineer. Hence, the

demand for instrumentation will always be there.

 Instrumentation engineers can also fit in both software and

hardware sectors.
Scope of Instrumentation

 A very simple example of an instrumentation system is

Mechanical thermostat- e.g, Refrigerator, Toaster, Microwave
oven.

 Another example of instrumentation is the Home security system.

 Modern automobiles have complex instrumentation.

 “Steam gages”, converted air pressures into needle reflections that

could be interpreted as altitude and airspeed. A magnetic compass
provided a sense direction.
Scope of Instrumentation
Reason to study Instrumentation

To measure
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Flow
 Level
In continuous Process, But How
Sensors

 Human natural observation capabilities are

generally not designed for process conditions.

 Instruments must have desired

capabilities to match process
conditions.

 Process Control has the role of a

decision makers (Like brain)

Sensors feel the condition and originate the signal

followed by modification and amplification for effective
display /transmission or control objectives.
Importance of effective
measurement in process
industry
Failure to measure effectively the level of liquid
in bottom of the tower lead to

--- Fire

--- Explosion
Objectives of Control

 The structure of chemical processes become increasingly complex, due the

better management of energy and raw materials. As a consequence, the
design of control system for complete plants now constitutes the focal point
engineering interest, rather than controller designs for single processing
units. The design of a control system has become intimately related to the
design of process itself.

 Designing a control system implies the identification of control objectives;

selection of appropriate measurement and manipulation, as well as the
determination of loops connecting theses; and identification of proper
control laws.

 The advent and rapid growth of digital computers has revolutionized the
practice of chemical process control and has allowed the industrial
implementation of advanced control concepts.
Emerging Aspects after Reading this Course

 Chemical process control is a subject of study with its own challenges. It is

intimately related to chemical engineering science and practice.
 The design of a control system is not a mathematical problem, but should
be perceived as engineering task, with all its attractive challenges and
practical shortcomings.
 A good understanding of physical and chemical phenomena taking place in
a chemical process is of paramount importance for the design of simple and
effective control schemes.
 Several alternative control configurations are usually possible for a given
processing unit or a complete plant. The selection of the “best” among
them is the central question to be resolved.
 There exist a plethora of analytical tools and design methodologies that one
should be familiar with before attempting to tackle process control
problems.
Why do we need automatic process control?

 Industrial processes are not static but rather very dynamic;

they are continuously changing as a result of many types
of disturbances.

 It is principally because of this dynamic nature that

control systems are needed to continuously and
automatically watch over the variables that must be
controlled.
Why do we need automatic process control?

 Enhanced process safety

 Satisfying environmental constraints

 Meeting ever-stricter product quality specifications

 More efficient use of raw materials and energy

 Increased profitability
Why do we need automatic process control?

 It is concerned with maintaining the process variables:

 Temperature
 Pressure
 Volume
 Flows
 Compositions

 Processes are dynamic in nature.

 Changes are always occurring and if actions are not taken in response, then
the important process variables (related to product quality, safety and
production rates)- will not achieve design conditions :
Instrument

 Typical components of instrument

 A Sensor:
(measures a physical quantity and converts it into a
signal)

 A Modifier
(Change the type of signal)

 A Display unit
(transmitting arrangement )

Perhaps the best advice for engineering students is

that “instruments are always incorrect”!!!!.
Functional Elements of an Instrument

Process/
Measured medium

Primary Variable Variable

Sensing Conversion Manipulation
Element Element Element

Data Data
Transmission Presentation
Element Element

Observer
Functional Elements of an Instrument (Cont‘d)

Typical Example:
Functional Elements of an Instrument (Cont‘d)

Fluid
Temperature Temperature Tube Tubing
Measured
Quantity

Primary Variable Pressure Data

Process/ Sensing Conversion Transmission
Measured medium Element Element Element

Pressure

Variable Motion Variable Data

Motion
Conversion Manipulation Presentation
Element Element Element

Observer
Spiral Bourdon Linkage Gear Scale & Pointer
Tube
Performance Characteristics of Instruments

 Static characteristics

 Dynamic characteristics
Performance Characteristics of Instruments (Cont‘d)

 Static characteristics
Static characteristics of an instrument includes;

 Accuracy

 Precision

 Repeatability

 Range

 Resolution

 Others ( Sensitivity , Dead zone etc.)

Static Characteristics

Static characteristics of an instrument includes;

1. Accuracy

Accuracy is the degree of

conformity of the measured
value with the accepted
standard or ideal value, which
we can take as the true
physical variable.
Accuracy is usually expressed in engineering units or as a percentage
of the sensor range, for example:

 Thermocouple temperature sensor with accuracy of  1.5 K.

 Orifice flow meters with accuracy of 3% of maximum flow range

Static Characteristics

Static characteristics of an instrument includes;

2. Precision

 Precision is the degree of exactness

for which an instrument is designed
or intended to perform.

 It is composed of two
characteristics;
1. Conformity
2. Number of significant figures
Static Characteristics

Static characteristics of an instrument includes;

3. Repeatability

The closeness of agreement among a number of

consecutive measurements of the same variable
(value) under the same operating conditions,
approaching in the same direction.

The term “approaching

in the same direction”
means that the variable
is increasing
(decreasing) to the
value for all replications
of the experiment.
Static Characteristics

Static characteristics of an instrument includes;

4. Reproducibility

 The closeness of agreement among a number of

consecutive measurements of the same variable
(value) under the same operating conditions over a
period of time, approaching from both directions.

The period of time is “long”, so that changes occurring

over longer times of plant operation are included.

Reproducibility includes hysteresis, dead band, drift

and repeatability.
Drift

 Gradual change in instruments

measurements.
OR
 Measure of difference in repeatability.

 Under laboratory conditions drift of an

element can be determined by one of
two ways;
1. Point drift
2. Calibration drift
Point Drift

 By maintaining exact operating and load

conditions , monitoring of output variations
for a fixed input signals as a function of time
is called point drift.

 Used for stable process conditions

Calibration Drift

 By maintaining input
signals, operating
conditions, a load
approximately
constant, the
comparison of
calibration curves at
the beginning and at
specified intervals of
time is called
Calibration drift.
 Used for varying
process conditions
Dead Zone

 Dead zone is the largest range of values of a

measured variable to which the instrument
does not respond.

 This is sometimes called dead spot and

hysteresis.

Backlash

 Backlash or mechanical hysteresis is defined as

that lost motion or free play which is inherent in
mechanical elements such as gears, linkages or
other mechanical transmission devices that are
not rigidly connected.
Static Characteristics

Static characteristics of an instrument includes;

5. Range/Span

 Range represents the minimum and maximum

values which can be determined by an instrument
or equipment.
 Difference between upper and lower range is
known as Span.
 Span can be the same for two different range
instruments.
If a chemical reactor typically operates at 300 C, the engineer might select a
range of 250-350 C.

Since the reactor will be started up from ambient temperature occasionally,

an additional sensor should be provided with a range of -50 to 400 C.
Static Characteristics

Static characteristics of an instrument includes;

5. Linearity

This is the closeness to a straight line of

the relationship between the true
process variable and the measurement.
Lack of linearity does not necessarily
degrade sensor performance. If the
nonlinearity can be modeled and an
appropriate correction applied to the
measurement before it is used for
monitoring and control, the effect of the
non-linearity can be eliminated.

Linearity is usually reported as non-linearity, which is the

maximum of the deviation between the calibration curve and a
straight line positioned so that the maximum deviation is
minimized
Static Characteristics

Static characteristics of an instrument includes;

6. Reliability

Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately perform (as

specified) for a period of time under specified operating conditions.
Some sensors are required for safety or product quality, and
therefore, they should be very reliable.

If sensor reliability is very important, the engineer can

provide duplicate sensors, so that a single failure does
not require a process shutdown
Threshold:
The minimum level of input before the change
in the instrument output reading is of large
enough magnitude to be detectable is known
as the threshold of the instrument.
Resolution:
The minimum reading that can be taken from
instruments.

38
Calibration

Assigning standard
values to an
equipment is
calibration.
Static Error

 Numerical differences between true value of

a quantity and its value as obtained by
measurement.

 Static errors are generally of three types;

1. Mistake or gross error (human mistakes)

2. Systematic errors (instrumental or
environmental errors)
3. Random or accidental errors (unknown)
Performance Characteristics

 Dynamic characteristics

Dynamic Characteristics of an instrument includes;

1. Speed of response
2. Fidelity
3. Lag
4. Drift
Other Issues

1. Maintenance

2. Consistency with process environment

3. Safety

4. Cost
Other Issues

Consistency with process environment

•Direct contact –
Sensors such as orifice plates and level floats have direct contact with process fluids.

Sheath protection –
Sensors such as thermocouples and pressure diaphragms have a sheath between the process
fluid and the sensor element

•Sample extraction –
When the process environment is very hostile or the sensor is delicate and performs a
complex physiochemical transformation on the process material, a sample can be extracted.
Other Issues

Location of Measurement Displays

Local display

Local panel display

Centralized control room

Remote monitoring
The Smart Sensor Revolution

Digital conversion and transmission

Diagnostics

Signal conditioning

Configuration
Principle measurements desired in Industry

Principle measurements desired in industry

(a) Temperature

(b) Pressure

(c) Level

(d) Flow

(e) Others ( Composition, pH etc.)

Home Work-1

You have two challenges

What variables should be

measured?

What sensor should be

specified for each
measurement?

Reactor with feed-effluent heat exchange

 Temperature Sensor
“It is time to turn up the heat but
first you must learn how to
measure it”
 INTRODUCTION

 SOME FACTS
 Two or three molecules moving at the same speed will have the
same/different temperature, but together represent a greater/lesser thermal
energy than any one of them considered alone.

 Heat is either the reduction or increase of thermal energy by transfer of

energy.

 Temperature is a more easily detected quantity than either thermal energy or

heat.

 In fact, when we need to measure either thermal energy or heat, we do so by

measuring temperature and then inferring the desired variable based on the
laws of thermodynamics.

 There are many different ways to measure temperature, from a simple glass-
bulb mercury thermometer to sophisticated infrared optical sensor systems.
Temperature Measurement Scales

 Relative Scales
 Fahrenheit (°F) F = 1.8 C + 32
 Celsius (°C) C = (F - 32) / 1.8

 Absolute Scales
 Rankine (°R) R = F + 460
K = C + 273
 Kelvin (K)
Temperature Measurement Scales

Imperial Metric
Fahrenheit (⁰F) / Rankine (⁰R) Celsius (⁰C) / Kelvin (⁰K)
+/- 460 +/- 273

212⁰F 672⁰R 373⁰K

100⁰C
Fahrenheit
[°F] = [°C] · 9/5 + 32
32⁰F 492⁰R
0⁰C 273⁰K Celsius
0⁰F 460⁰R
-18⁰C 255⁰K [°C] = ([°F] − 32) · 5/9
Kelvin
[K] = [°C] + 273.15
Rankine
[°R] = [°F] + 459.67
-273⁰C 0⁰K
-460⁰F 0⁰R
Relationship of Temperature Measurement Scales

(°F) = 9/5*(°C) +32

(°C) = 5/9*[(°F) –32]

(°F) = (°R) – 459.67

(°C) = (K) – 273.15

Methods of Temperature Measurement

1. Mechanical Methods

2. Electrical Methods
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Temperature Measurement

Thermometers Probes Non-Contact

Glass Bulb
Single Reading
Next Slide Devices

Bimetallic

Camera Field
Devices
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Temperature
Measurement

Thermometers Probes Non-Contact

Resistance Elements

Thermopiles

Semiconductors
Methods of Temperature Measurement

1. Thermocouples
2. Thermistors
3. Electrical resistance change (RTD)
4. Pyrometers
5. Expansion of materials
BI-METAL TEMPERATURE SENSOR


As you can see, the values for α are quite small.
This means the amount of expansion (or
contraction) for modest temperature changes are
almost too small to see unless the sample size (l0)
is large.
Examples: in bridges and railways.
Can we use this expansion as a
temperature measuring tool?

 YES
 NO
 One way to amplify the motion resulting from thermal expansion is to bond
two equally-sized strips of dissimilar metals together, such as copper and iron.

 Copper expands slightly more than iron on exposure to same temperature

change.

 If we bond these two strips of metal together, this differential growth will result
in a bending motion greatly exceeding the linear expansion. This device is
called a bi-metal strip:
 This bending motion is significant enough to drive a pointer mechanism, activate
an electromechanical switch, or perform any number of other mechanical tasks,
making this a very simple and useful primary sensing element for temperature.

 If a bi-metallic strip is twisted over a long length, it will tend to un-twist as it heats
up. This twisting motion may be used to directly drive the needle of a temperature
gauge. This is the operating principle of the temperature gauge shown in the
following photograph:
BI-METAL TEMPERATURE SENSOR
BI-METAL TEMPERATURE SENSOR
 WHAT WE STUDY TODAY !
 Some basics about temperature.

 Categories of temperature measuring

instruments.

 Bimetallic temperature sensors.