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PROCESSOR

By
Rajeev Kumar
Pankaj Thakur
Abhisek Kapoor
Introduction
• Processor is the small chip which contains
electronic circuit. it is the main computing
part of the computer. It is also known as
CPU(central processing unit), brain of the
computer.It performs all the calculation and
execute the instructions given to it.
History
• The first ever processor was designed by
Intel in 1971 and it was named as “4004”
• It contained 2300 transistors, 4-bit word
size and 108 kHz of clock rate.
• At that time it was called MPU(Micro
processing Unit).
YEAR
Some processors
NAME OF PROCESSOR BIT WIDTH AND CLOCK SPEED
1971 Intel 4004 microprocessor 4-bit 108khz

1972 Intel 8008 microprocessor 8-bit 0.5-0.8MHz

1977 Intel 8085 microprocessor 8-bit 3.5-6MHz

1978 Intel 8086 microprocessor 16-bit 5-10 MHz


(First X86 Processor)
1981 NEC V20 & V30 processors 16-bit 16 MHz
(Nippon Electrical Company)

1985 Intel 386 processor 32-bit 33MHz

1993 Intel Pentium series 32-bit 60-300 MHz


onwards
Types of processors
1. CISC PROCESSOR:-Complex Instruction Set Computing
processor.

2. RISC PROCESSOR:- Reduced instruction set computing


processor.

3. EPIC PROCESSOR:-Explicitly Parallel Instruction


computing processor.
Units of processors
• Arithmetic logic unit
ALU is a digital circuit that performs
arithmetic and Logical operations like addition
,substation, multiplication and division.
• Control Unit
CU is a digital circuit that controls the
flow of information throughout the system and
coordinates flow of the data.
• Memory
Cache memory(small and faster) which holds the
important information about a task and helps to
perform a task quickly.
Multi-core processing
• A multi-core processor (multiprocessor,) combines two
or more independent cores (normally a CPU) into a
single package composed of a single integrated circuit
(IC), called a die, or more dies packaged together.
• A dual-core processor contains two cores, and a quad-
core processor contains four cores.
• A processor with all cores on a single die is called a
monolithic processor
• Cores in a multi-core device may share a single
coherent cache like L2 cache (e.g.
the Intel Core 2 duo) or may have separate
caches (e.g. current AMD dual-core
processors).
• The processors also share the same
interconnect to the rest of the system. Each
"core" independently implements optimizations.
CPU core
CPU core and
and
L1 caches.
L1 caches.

Bus interface and


L2 Cache
Advantages of multi-cores
• 1.Due to the multiple CPU cores on the same die it
allows the cache circuitry to operate at a much
higher clock rate than is possible if the signals have
to travel off-chip.
• 2.Combining equivalent CPUs on a single die (multi
core processing) significantly improves the
performance of cache use operations. This means
that signals between different CPUs travel shorter
distances, and therefore those signals degrade less.
These higher quality signals allow more data to be
sent in a given time period.
• 3.The largest boost in performance will likely be
noticed in improved response time while running
CPU-intensive processes, like antivirus scans,
ripping/burning media or searching for folders
etc.
• 4. As the die can fit into the package, physically,
the multi-core CPU designs require much less
Printed Circuit Board (PCB) space than multi-chip
designs.
• 5. A dual-core processor uses slightly less power
than two coupled single-core processors because
of the decreased power required to drive signals
external to the chip.
Disadvantages of multi-cores
• 1. Integration of a multi-core chip does
production yields down and they are more
difficult to manage thermally than lower-
density single-chip designs.
• 2. In addition to operating system (OS)
support, adjustments to existing software are
required to maximize utilization of the
computing resources provided by multi-core
processors.
• 3. Single CPU designs may make better use of
the silicon surface area than multiprocessing
cores, so a development commitment to this
architecture may carry the risk of
obsolescence.
• 4.Two processing cores sharing the same
system bus and memory bandwidth . This
limits the real-world performance advantage.
• 5. The ability of multi-core processors to
increase application performance depends on
the use of multiple threads(individual
programs) within applications.
Parallelism
• It is the simultaneous execution of some
combination of multiple instances of
programmed instructions and data on
multiple processors.
• Parallel computing is a form of computation
in which many calculations are carried out
simultaneously, operating on the principle
that large problems can often be divided into
smaller ones, which are then solved
simultaneously ("in parallel").
Types of parallelism
1. BIT LEVEL PARALLELISM
This technology is basically
used to speed-up in computer architecture and was
driven by doubling computer word size—the
amount of information the processor can execute
per cycle. Hence Increasing the word size reduces
the number of instructions the processor must
execute to perform an operation on variables whose
sizes are greater than the length of the word.
2. INSTRUCTON LEVEL PARALLELISM
A
computer program is basically a stream of
instructions executed by a processor. These
instructions can be re-ordered and combined
into groups which are then executed in
parallel without changing the result of the
program. This is known as instruction-level
parallelism.
3 . DATA LEVEL PARALLELSIM
Data parallelism is
parallelism inherent in program loops, which
focuses on distributing the data across
different computing nodes to be processed in
parallel. "Parallelizing loops often leads to
similar (not necessarily identical) operation
sequences or functions being performed on
elements of a large data structure.
4. TASK PARALLELISM
Task parallelism is the
characteristic of a parallel program that
"entirely different calculations can be
performed on either the same or different sets
of data".This contrasts with data parallelism,
where the same calculation is performed on
the same or different sets of data. Task
parallelism does not usually scale with the
size of a problem.
Working of processor
• CPU when gets power then it points to special
location in BIOS.
• BIOS contains a program known as boot
loader program at that location.
• The boot loader program loads the OS from
hard disk to memory.
• Then it starts executing codes present at
that address (OS loading).
• Then control goes to OS.
• And OS starts working by performing
fetch cycle.
Instruction fetch cycle
This is divided into four parts:-
1 Fetch cycle.
2 Decode cycle.
3 Execute cycle.
4 Interrupt cycle.
Fetch cycle

• The fetch cycle begins with taking the address


stored in the Program Counter (PC)
• The CU copy the instruction stored at this
address to address register and instruction to
be executed is stored in instruction register.
• The program counter is incremented to point
to the next address from which the new
instruction is to be fetched.
Decode cycle

In decode cycle the interpretation the


instruction that was copied in the Fetch Cycle.

Execute cycle

In the execute cycle the instruction which


were decoded in previous cycle are executed
in ALU.
Interrupts cycle

An interrupt can occur any time during the


program execution. Whenever it is caused, a series
of events take place so that the instruction fetch
execute cycle can be resumed. Following are the
steps taken by OS.

• Suspend the execution of current instruction.


• Put the address of current instruction on the address
stack
• Loading the PC with the address of the interrupt
handler
• This starts the Instruction Fetch Execute
cycle again for the instructions in the
Interrupt handler.
• Once the OS completes the execution of the
interrupt handler, the address of the next
instruction to be executed is obtained from
next address in the stack.
• The suspended instruction is then continued.
Properties of a good processor
1. High clock speed:- It describes the speed at
which CPU operates. Todays processors have
clock speed more than 1 GHz
2. Larger bit width:- It is the length of the register
of a CPU. e.g. 32-bit register,64-bit register.
3. Large cache memory:-The cache is a smaller,
faster memory and it is placed between main
memory and processor to enhance the speed.
Today's processors have128byte L1 and 1mb L2
cache.
Thanks for your
time.

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