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Parallelism & Reffering - G4

The document discusses parallelism and referencing in discourse analysis. Parallelism refers to using the same grammatical pattern to show equal importance of ideas. It creates weight, balance, rhythm, style, clarity and emphasis. Referencing refers to using language to connect a listener or reader to something. It involves using proper nouns, pronouns, or invented names. Reference can be anaphoric, referring back to something mentioned earlier, or cataphoric, referring ahead to something mentioned later.

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205 views28 pages

Parallelism & Reffering - G4

The document discusses parallelism and referencing in discourse analysis. Parallelism refers to using the same grammatical pattern to show equal importance of ideas. It creates weight, balance, rhythm, style, clarity and emphasis. Referencing refers to using language to connect a listener or reader to something. It involves using proper nouns, pronouns, or invented names. Reference can be anaphoric, referring back to something mentioned earlier, or cataphoric, referring ahead to something mentioned later.

Uploaded by

صباء خالد طور
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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(Discourse Analysis)

(Group Members)
PARALLELISM
Parallelism, or parallel structure, means using the same
pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have same
level of importance.

It is a speaking or writing technique in which you


communicate more effectively and powerfully by balancing
various parts of sentence.
 It creates following things in
discourse:
 Weight
 Balance
 Rhythm
 Style
 Clarity
 Emphasis
01 02 03
At word At phrase At clause
level level level
Items in a list
Coordinating
Conjunction
Correlative
Conjunction
Comparison words
Prepositional Pharases
 All nouns:
 The position required experience, friendliness, and a willingness to get
up early.

 All adjectives:
 They wanted someone who was experienced, friendly, and willing to get
up early.

 All verbs:
 They wanted someone who had experience, was friendly, and liked to
get up early.
 When you connect two or more clauses or phrases with a
coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so), use parallel
structure.

 Example:
Not Parallel: My best friend took me dancing and to a show.
Parallel: My best friend took me to a dance and a show.

Not parallel: The cafeteria was messy, noisy and it was crowded.
Parallel: The cafeteria was messy, noisy and crowded.
 When you connect two clauses or phrases with a correlative
conjunction (not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, if…then,
etc.), use parallel structure.

 Example
Not Parallel: My dog not only likes to play fetch, but also chase cars.
Parallel: My dog likes not only to play fetch, but also to chase cars.

Not Parallel: My overworked boss neither worked nor exercises regularly.


Parallel: My overworked boss neither eats right nor exercises regularly.
 When you connect two clauses or phrases with a word of comparison,
such as than or as, use parallel structure.

 Example:
Not Parallel: I would rather pay for my education than financial aid.
Parallel: I would rather pay for my education than receive financial aid.

Not Parallel: It is as important to eat right as exercising regularly.


Parallel: It is just as important to eat right as to exercise regularly.
 If we are using prepositional phrases in a sentence, then all the phrases should be
prepositional.

 Examples:
Not parallel: Trying desperately to find his keys, he looked in his bathroom, the sofa, and on
the kitchen counter.
Parallel: Trying desperately to find his keys, he looked in his bathroom, under the sofa, and
on the kitchen counter.

Not parallel: The light bulb are in the cabinet, on the table or the kitchen sink.
Parallel: The light bulb are in the cabinet, on the table or under the kitchen sink.
 Use clauses or complete sentences consistently.

 Example:
Not parallel: The county explained when the cleanup would begin, and it would be funded
by a referendum.
Parallel Clauses: The county explained when the cleanup would begin and how it would
be funded.
Parallel Clauses: The county explained that the cleanup would begin in June and that it
would be funded by a referendum.
Not parallel: Three reasons were given for the concert’s cancellation: the lead singer
was sick, low ticket sales, and because the drummer had left the band.
Parallel Sentences: Three reasons were given for the concert’s cancellation: the lead
singer was sick, ticket sales were low, and the drummer had left the band.

Not parallel: University students use the internet to research essay topics,
businesspeople use it to hold video conferences, and it is used by teachers to
deliver homework assignments.
Parallel: University students use the internet to research essay topics,
businesspeople use it to hold video conferences, and teachers use it to deliver
homework assignments.
REFERRING
EXPRESSIONS
Reference can be defined as an act by which a speaker or
writer uses language to enable a listener or reader to identify
something.

Reference is a relation between objects in which one object is


indicated, or acts as a means to connect or link to another
object.
 To perform an act of reference, we can use proper
nouns (Clay, Hannah, Justin), other nouns in
phrases (a writer, my friend, the cat) or pronouns
(he, she, it).
 We can also refer to things when we’re not sure
what to call them. We can use expressions such as
the dark thing and that sticky stuff.
 We can even invent names.
Inference
Anaphora
Presupposition
We can use names associated with things to refer to people
and use names of people to refer to things. The key process
here is called inference.

An inference is additional information used by the listener to


create a connection between what is said and what must be
meant.
Can I look at your Chomsky?
Sure, it’s on the shelf over there.

Picasso is in the museum.

Jennifer is wearing Louis Vuitton.

We saw Shakespeare in London.


Anaphora can be defined as subsequent
reference to an already introduced entity.
Anaphora means an expression that refers to something
that refers to something mentioned earlier in the
context.
Anaphoric
reference

Cataphoric
reference
 Anaphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something mentioned
earlier in the discourse.
 Example:
Michael went to the bank. He was annoyed because it was closed.

 Anaphoric reference often makes use of the definite article “the”.


 Example:
He sat down at the table and took a small box from his pocket. The object felt heavy in his
hands. Inside it was the key to his future.
 Cataphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to
something mentioned later in the discourse.

 Example:
Although I phone her every week, my mother still complains that I don’t keep in
touch often enough.

The book was there on the table. I’d never read Moby Dick and I didn’t intend to
do so now.
 These are implicit assumptions required to make a
sentence meaningful.

 Example:
If someone tells you “Your brother is waiting outside”,
there is an obvious presupposition that you have a brother.

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