Behavior of Metals

Properties of Materials
• Properties of materials deal with the physical,
chemical and mechanical properties, which
are helpful in selection of an engineering
materials to suit the design of a usable part
on assembly.

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Physical properties
• Physical properties for each material are
constants associated with the atomic
structure
– Density,
– Crystalline structure
– Atomic packing
– Specific heat
– Melting point etc.

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Chemical properties
• The chemical properties are of interest
because of almost universal need for
resistance to corrosion.

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Mechanical properties
• Mechanical properties
– Tensile strength, UTS
– Yield strength
– % elongation
– Modulus of elasticity, stiffness
– Impact properties, at RT, subzero temperature
and at service temperature
– Creep
– Fatigue
– Hardness
• Mechanical tests in laboratory are carried
out to know these properties. However, the
test results may not be applicable to real
situations, where stress pattern is not
simple.

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Tensile Test
• Stress
• Strain
• Elasticity
• Plasticity
• Elastic limit (proportional limit)
• Hooks Law
• Lower and upper yield points
• Work hardening, strain hardening
• Necking, ductility
• Fracture

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 P
Uniform Necking
deformation
UTS DL = L-L0

0.2% Proof Stress ex=ΔL/L

σx
% Elongation
Plastic deformation

ex Strain

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• The slope does not change with
microstructure or heat treatment given to
the material.
• Changing the hardness or strength, does
not change the stiffness of the material.
• The stiffness can only be changed by
temperature.
• Stiffness is inversely proportional to the
temperature of the material.

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Impact Test
• The toughness of the material is defined as
the ability of an un-notched member
(smooth round bar) to absorb energy when
loaded slowly.
• Toughness is measured as the area under
stress strain diagram, when loaded slowly.
• Notch toughness is defined as the ability of
the material to absorb energy in the
presence of a sharp notch, when loaded
very rapidly, with an impact load.
• Notch toughness is measured as amount of
energy required to fracture a notched
specimen at a particular temperature and
load rate.
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Creep Test
• Creep is the deformation of material over a
period of time when under a load too small
to produce any measurable plastic
deformation at the time of application.
• Creep occurs in any metal or alloy slightly
above recrystallization temperature.
• Creep occurs in three stages
• The first stage of creep, known as primary
creep represents region of decreasing
creep rate.
• Primary creep is the period of transient
creep, in which the creep resistance of the
material increases by virtue of its own
deformation.

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• The second stage of creep known as
secondary creep is the period of nearly
constant creep rate, which results from
balance between processes of strain
hardening and recovery.
• Third stage creep occurs when there is an
effective reduction in cross sectional area,
by necking or internal void formation
• Finally the material fails.
• Creep tests measure the strain rate at
particular service temperature, and a given
service stress condition.

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 Creep test
Tertiary
Primary Secondary /
Steady state
Strain

Dl
s  Steady state creep rate l  l0
tr = time to rupture
Strain 
time
l0

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Fatigue Test
• Ability to take variable or reversing
stress
• Fatigue testing determines the ability of
a material to withstand repeated
application of a stress which in itself is
too small to produce appreciable plastic
deformation.
• The stresses are changing in nature
over time period.

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• A crack initiates at the point of maximum
stress and it propagates in the cross
section, reducing the effective diameter
taking load, and finally failure occurs.
• The fatigue limit is the maximum stress
which the metal will bear for a infinite
numbers of cycles without fracture, also
called endurance limit of the material.
• A number of materials have fatigue limit in
the order of one-half of their tensile
strength.
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Hardness Test
• The resistance of the material to plastic
deformation when surface indenting,
scratching or frictional type load is applied
to the surface.
• It is closely related to strength.
• Brinell Hardness:
– Load: 3000 Kg for 30 sec
– Hardened Steel ball, 10mm diameter
– Hardness indicated by impression diameter
• Vickers Hardness:
– Similar to Brinell
– Diamond pyramid is used instead of Steel ball.

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• Rockwell Hardness:
– Hardness number is inversely proportional to the depth of the
indentation
– Hard steel ball 1/16” diameter
– Load of 100 Kg (B Scale),
– or by a diamond cone under a load of 150 Kg. (C Scale).
• Scratch hardness: Resistance against scratch, is
compared with set of known standards. The Mhos
scale of hardness is generally used.
• Superficial Hardness: When the surface hardness of
a metal is desired, or the metal part is very small
and thin, this test method is applied, using very
light load to minimise penetration. Rockwell
hardness tester with brrael penetrator under 60 Kg.
load is applied.
• Microhardness: Very thin penetration and extremely
light loads, used under microscope on etched and
polished surface to determine hardness of different
phases or individual grains in microstructure

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 Corrosion
• Corrosion is unintended destructive
electrochemical reaction of material with
its environment
• All corrosion reactions are electrochemical
in nature and depends upon the operation of
electrochemical cell at the metal surface
• Except some noble metals, all metals
corrode by oxidation
• Metals try to come to their more stable
state, ore, by chemical combination with
other elements

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Corrosion Process
• During corrosion process,
metal transform from metallic
state to ionic state by
oxidation in electrolyte at
Anode
• Electrolyte may be water, salt
water, acidic or alkaline
solutions of any concentration
• Charged metal ions (M++) are
detached from the solid
surface and inter into solution
as metallic ions.

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• Corresponding (-) charge in
the form of electrons are left
behind in the metal
• Electrons reach the surface
of the cathode material and
neutralize charged hydrogen
ions, H+ which has come to
the cathode surface
• Two of these ions become
neutral atoms and are
released generally in the form
of Hydrogen gas.

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• Thus on a single piece of
metal both anode and
cathode are formed
(Electrolytic Cell), and the
formation of hydrogen goes
on, thus corrosion
continues.
• Site of formation of
electrolytic cell in metal are
the sites of imperfections,
stress concentration,
inclusions in the metal,
crevices, grain boundary
etc.

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Types of Corrosion
• Uniform
• Galvanic
• Crevice
• Stress corrosion cracking
• Intergranular corrosion

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 Uniform Corrosion
• Corrosion of metals by uniform
chemical attack is common
form of corrosion and occurs in
atmosphere, in liquids and in
soil, frequently under normal
service condition
• Pitting corrosion is uniform
corrosion

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 Galvanic Corrosion
• When dissimilar metal are in
electrical contact in an
electrolyte, the less noble metal
(anode) is attacked to a greater
degree than it were exposed
alone, and the more noble metal
(cathode) is attacked to a lesser
degree than it were exposed
alone
• Corrosion is more severe near
the junction of two metals than
else where on the metal surface
• Galvanic series, Magnesium-
Platinum
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 Crevice Corrosion
• A crevice in a metal surface,
at a joint between two
metallic surfaces or between
metallic and non metallic
surface, which provides
conditions conducive for
concentration cell corrosion,
• Concentration cell is a
difference in the
concentration of one or more
dissolved compound in the
electrolyte, causing potential
difference and corrosion
occurs in anodic area.
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 Intergranular Corrosion
• Intergranualr corrosion is
preferential dissolution of the
grain boundary phases or
zones immediately adjacent
to them
• The preferential attack is
enhanced by the segregation
of specific element or
compound
• Susceptibility to intergranular
corrosion is usually related to
the thermal processing, such
as welding, stress relieving
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Protection from
Corrosion
• Pure metals generally have good corrosion
resistance
• Alloying elements reduce corrosion
resistance, in steel, carbon most affecting
• Coatings of the exposed surface,
galvanizing, electroplating
• Stress relieving
• Use of lubricants
• Surface treatment, anodizing
• Galvanic protection, use of sacrificial
anode 27
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