TRACE FOSSIL

•What is Ichnology?
Ichnology is the study of plant and animal traces.
Implicit to this definition is that the traces made
by plants and animals reflect some sort of
behavior.

Ichnology can be divided into two major

subdivisions: paleoichnology (the study of ancient
traces) and neoichnology (the study of modern
traces)
 One single animal can make thousands and
thousands of traces in its lifetime, but it will
only leave behind one body when it dies.
Because of this, trace fossils are much more
common than body fossils
 There are two main types of fossils: body fossils and
trace fossils.

Body fossils include any part of the actual animal or

plant. Things like bones, teeth, shells, and leaves are
considered body fossils (an actual body part of an
ancient organism, which includes any casts or
molds that were made of the dead body).

Trace fossils give us proof of animal life from the

past. Trace fossils include things like foot prints,
burrows, and fossilized poop. (any indirect evidence
of ancient life that reflects some sort of behavior)
Paleontology is the study of ancient life,
which means that it can include both the
study of trace fossils and body fossils. The
study of trace fossils is specifically called
paleoichnology.
Among these advantages are:

 Long Time Ranges - Certain trace fossils, because they were

made by similar organisms with similar behavior, have much
longer time ranges than most body fossils. Because these trace
fossils are useful as environmental indicators for broader
periods of time, they are more likely encountered than some
body fossils.
 Abundance - One animal, especially if mobile, can make
many traces during its lifetime, whereas it may or may not
have its body preserved in the fossil record. Trace fossils made
by most organisms should be more abundant than body
fossils of the organisms themselves.
 Common In-situ Occurrence - Unlike body fossils, trace
fossils are very rarely transported out of their original
substrate. In the majority of cases, trace fossils represent
behavior that occurred exactly where you find them.
 Preservation Potential - Trace fossils are common
in clastic sedimentary rocks that are normally
lacking body fossils. This phenomenon is largely a
result of poor preservation potential for body
fossils in such a medium, whereas trace fossils are
preserved or (in some cases) enhanced in these
rocks.
 Excellent Environmental Indicators - Because
behavior is often influenced by environmental
factors, trace fossils provide important clues to the
original conditions of ancient environments.
Environmental factors reflected by trace fossils
include salinity, oxygen levels, energy, organismal
interactions, and food supplies.
Disadvantages of trace fossils are relatively fewer
than their advantages but mainly center on the fact
that one trace maker can make many different traces
or many different trace makers can make the same
trace. Because of these considerations, most trace
fossils have limited value for biostratigraphy.
There are different types of trace fossil:

Track: an impression made by a single foot.

Trackway: a number of tracks made during a single trip.
Trail: an impression made by an animal without legs.
Burrows: a hole or holes an animal dug into loose sediment
(like mud).
Borings: a hole or holes an animal dug into a hard substrate
(like wood or rock).
Eggs and Nests: shells that at one time would have
contained babies and the nests that the babies would have
been kept in.
Coprolites: poop that has become fossilized (no-longer
stinky, but still ickie).
 Burrows are excavations made into an
unconsolidated substrate.
 Tracks are imprints on a sediment surface by an
animal with legs.
 Trails are imprints on a sediment by a legless
animal dragging its body across a surface.
 Borings are excavations made into a
consolidated substrate, which could include
rock or wood.

Burrows, tracks, and trails are examples of

Biogenic sedimentary structures (structures
made in an unconsolidated substrate);
Borings are examples of bioerosion structures.
 Another type of trace fossil is
biostratification, which can be
represented by stromatolites or biogenic
graded bedding.
 Stratification refers to the layering of
sediments, hence biostratification is
layering caused by organisms.
 Stromatolites are biogenic sedimentary
structures formed by sediment binding and
trapping in cyanobacterial or algal colonies.
 Biogenic graded bedding is bedding where
organisms mixed the larger particles to the
bottom of a sedimentary profile, causing a
gradual decrease in particle size upward.
 Fossilized feces are called coprolites;
these are also trace fossils.
 Coprolites are valuable clues to the
paleodiet of extinct organisms and
provide additional information to
paleontologists interested in
reconstructing ecosystem relationships
of fossil plants and animals.
 Lastly, eggs and nests are indirect evidence of
reproductive behavior and their fossilized equivalents
are also considered as trace fossils.
 Although some dinosaur eggs have preserved remains
of embryos (which are body fossils), the egg itself is
a trace fossil.
 Nests may or may not include eggs but are structures
that were primarily made for facilitating the
development of younger animals.
 For example, some dinosaur nest sites containing
eggs have been discovered, but termite nests without
any eggs or body fossils also have been preserved in
the fossil record.
 Biogenic Structures
 A biogenic structure is a feature caused by an
organism while it was still living. This definition
effectively separates a biogenic structure from a
structure made by the body of a dead organism (such as
a drag mark, cast, or mold). The following outline,
modified after Frey and Pemberton (1984), provides a
breakdown of different categories of biogenic structures
and examples of each category:
 Biogenic structures can be classified on the basis of
their behavioral association.
 These behavioral modes represent basic biological
functions that are nearly universal to multicellular
organisms, such as feeding, dwelling, and locomotion.
 Multiple or overlapping types of behavior can be
interpreted from one trace, but the classification is
generally applied to the predominant motive of the
organism.
 For example, a snail might be moving across a surface,
hence you would label its behavioral mode as
locomotion. However, if the surface has a wonderfully
delicious film of organic scum that the snail is
consuming as it moves, then the primary purpose for
movement was feeding.
 Different behavioral modes for biogenic
structures were assigned categories by Seilacher
(1953).
 These categories reflect Latinized names that
were meant to standardize the categories; all
have the suffix "ichnia" to indicate that they
represent traces of the behavior
The diagram shows the interrelationships of the different behavioral
modes, their Latinized names, and explanations of each mode. This
diagram is modified after Pemberton et al. (1992).
 The types of animal behaviour can be broken up into
six broad groups:
Dwelling: the animal built the trace and then used it as a
home.
Resting: the animal simply "took a break".
Feeding: the animal made temporary burrows that it stayed in
while it was feeding.
Farming: the animal made burrow systems that have regular
patterns. The animal lived in the burrow permanently and
farmed for food.
Locomotion: trackways and trails made by animals "on the
move" - traveling from one place to another.
Escape: the animal was trying to escape its home and moved
up or down in the sediment very quickly.
 Because trace fossils are not actual organisms or parts of
organisms, they cannot be given Linnaean names
recognized by the ICZN (International Committee on
Zoological Nomenclature) as organisms.

Nevertheless, morphologically distinctive trace fossils

are given genus and species names by ichnologists for the
sake of international communication.
For example, a simple, unbranched, unlined, horizontal
burrow might be given the name Planolites, and varieties
of that same basic morphology can be identified as
"species" under that same "genus" name (e.g., Planolites
montanus). To avoid confusion with binomial nomenclature
used in naming body fossils, trace fossils are named as
ichnogenera (plural of ichnogenus) and ichnospecies.
 the ichnogenus name can not be expected to reflect a
specific trace maker.
 Consequently, a trilobite trackway may have been
made by a species of the trilobite Isotelus, but the
trilobite trackway itself might be called Cruziana.
When you recall that one of the disadvantages of
trace fossils is that the same trace fossil could have
been made by many organisms, think of the difficulty
of trying to match every Cruziana with each of the
hundreds of trilobite genera. Even dinosaur tracks can
rarely be matched with a specific dinosaur; most
ichnologists are satisfied enough to say that certain
trackways were made by sauropods or theropods.
 ICHNOFACIES
 Basic Definition of Ichnofacies
 Assemblages of trace fossils, in association with body
fossils and lithologic information, provide excellent
clues to parameters of ancient environments. This use
of all preserved aspects of an ancient sedimentary
deposit for interpreting its original environment of
deposition is called facies analysis. If dealing simply
with the trace fossils in a sedimentary deposit, you
would be interested in describing its environmentally
related and contemporaneous trace fossils; in a
modern environment, this assemblage is an
ichnocoenose. The preserved record of the original
ichnocoenose is an ichnofacies
 These ichnofacies, their general environmental
association, and representative ichnogenera are
(from Pemberton et al., 1992):
Trypanites - lithified marine substrates.
Entobia
Gastrochaenolites
Trypanites
Teredolites - marine or marginal marine woody substrates.
Teredolites
Scoyenia - nonmarine substrates.
Ancorichnus
Cruziana
Scoyenia
Skolithos
Skolithos - high energy, shallow marine substrates.
Diplocraterion
Monocraterion
Ophiomorpha
Skolithos
Cruziana - lower energy, circalittoral marine
substrates.
Arenicolites
Aulichnites
Cruziana
Planolites
Teichichnus
Thalassinoides
Glossifungites - firm (but unlithified) marine
substrates.
Gastrochaenolites
Psilonichnus
Rhizocorallium
Skolithos
Thalassinoides
Psilonichnus - supralittoral, moderate to low energy (beach to
backshore).
Psilonichnus
Macanopsis
Zoophycos - circalittoral to bathyal, low energy, marine
substrates.
Phycosiphon
Spirophyton
Zoophycos
Nereites - bathyal to abyssal, low energy, marine substrates.
Cosmoraphe
Lorenzinia
Nereites
Paleodictyon
 Applications of Ichnofacies
 The ichnofacies concept has been applied to
petroleum exploration as an aid to interpreting
depositional environments.
 The interpretation of sedimentary environments helps
to assess potential petroleum reservoirs and source
rocks on the basis of stratigraphic architecture;
laterally adjacent facies succeeding one another
vertically (Walther's Law) can be better discerned if
the facies are distinctive and identifiable.
 Trace fossil assemblages provide an excellent
supplementary tool for facies analysis, especially
when body fossils are lacking.
 Types of Ichnofacies

The trace fossils have remained in appearance

rather constant since Cambrian, even if their
producers might have been different.
The trace fossil assemblages can be divided
according the palaeoenvironmental scheme into
a number of ichnofacies named after a
characteristic trace fossil.
The ichnofacies indicate a particular
sedimentary facies and can be identified on the
basis of its trace fossil assemblage
The typical position of the major ichnofacies in marine and
continental environments:
Cr - Cruziana; G - Glossifungites; N - Nereites; Tr - Tripanites
Ps - Psilonichnus; Sc - Scoyenia; Sk - Skolithos; Z - Zoophycos
Te - Teredolites;(after Benton & Harper, 1997)
 Wood Rock
ground ground Firmground Loose- and softground Sedimentology / environment

Fresh Bathymetr Grainsiz

Marine Fresh
water y e
water Marine Energy

Psilonich
- nus - Backshore Sand
Ruso Skoli
phycos? thos High Beach Sand

Arenico Arenico
lites? lites Event Shelf Sand silt
Teredo Trypa Glossi Scoye
lites nites fungites nia Lagoon / Sand, silt
Fuer
sichnus? Cruziana Med shelf

Sand,
Nereites Event Slope to mud

Zoo
Mermia phycos Low abyssal Mud
 The Skolithos Ichnofacies can
be recognized by a low
diversity of abundant vertical
domichnia burrows
(Skolithos, Diplocraterion and
Arenicolites), fodinichnia
(Ophiomorpha), and
fugichnia.

All these traces typically indicate intertidal situations where the organisms
have to be able to respond rapidly in stressful conditions. The Skolithos
Ichnofacies was at first seen as occurring only in the intertidal zone, but it
is also typical of other shifting sand environments, such as the tops of
storm sand sheets and the tops of turbidity flows
The Teredolites Ichnofacies is identified by the presence of borings in wood
(especially Teredolites), especially those produced by marine bivalves such as the
modern ship worm, Teredo.
The Trypanites Ichnofacies is characterized by domichnial borings of
worms (Trypanites), bivalves (Gostrochaenolites), barnacles (Rogerella)
and sponges (Entobia).
These are formed in shoreline rocks or in lithified limestone hard grounds
on the seabed. Bioerosion traces made by gastropods and echinoids are
rarely preserved in ancient cases
The Zoophycos Ichnofacies is characterized by complex fodinichnia
(Zoophycos, and sometimes other deep traces such as Thalassinoides)
in tiered arrangements
The ichnofacies occurs in a range of water depths between the abyssal
zone and the shallow continental shelf, in normal background conditions
of sedimentation. The Nereites Ichnofacies may be a matching
association found at similar water depths during times of turbidite (event)
deposition
The Scoyenia Ichnofacies is characterized by a low diversity trace fossil
assemblage, mainly simple horizontal fodinichnia (Scoyenia and
Taenidium), with occasional vertical domichnia (Skolithos) and
repichnia produced by insects or freshwater shrimps (Cruziana,
Isopodichnus).
The traces are preserved in fluvial and lacustrine sediments, often in the
silts and sands of redbed sequences. Associated subaerial palaeosoils
and aeolian sands may contain domichnia and repichnia of insects, and
dinosaur and other tetrapod foot-prints.
 The Psilonichnus
Ichnofacies shows a low
diversity assemblage of
small vertical burrows
with basal living
chambers (Macanopsis),
narrow sloping T-shaped
and Y- shaped burrows
(Psilonichnus), root
traces, and vertebrate
footprints

This ichnofacies is typical of backshore, dune areas, and supratidal

flats on the coast
 The Nereites Ichnofacies
is recognized by the
presence of meandering
pascichnia (Nereites,
Neonereites and
Helminthoide), spiral
pascichnia
(Spirorhaphe), and
agrichnia (Paleodictyon
and Spirodesmos).
Vertical burrows are
almost entirely absent

Nereites Ichnofacies viewed in pelagic carbonate ooze

This ichnofacies indicates deep-water environments, including ocean floors
and deep marine basins. The trace fossils occur in muds deposited from
suspension, and in the mudstones and siltstones of distal turbidites
The Glossifungites Ichnofacies is characterized by domichnia
(Glossifungites and Thalassinoides) and sometimes plant root penetration
structures. Other behavioural trace fossil types are rare.
The traces occur in firm, but not lithified sediments, such as muds and
silts in marine intertidal and shallow subtidal zones. The firm grounds may
develop in low energy situations such as salt marshes, mud bars, of high
intertidal flats, or in shallow marine environments where erosion has
stripped off superficial unconsolidated layers of sediment
The Cruziana Ichnofacies shows rich trace fossil diversity, with horizontal
repichnia (Cruziana and Aulichnites), cubichnia (Rusophycus,
Asteriacites and Lockeia), and vertical burrows
This ichnofacies represents mid and distal continental shelf situations,
below normal wave base, but may be affected by storm activity
 Trace Fossils and Burrows
Burrows are a type of trace fossil found commonly in
sedimentary rocks.
They represent the activity of an organism within the
sediment, after the sediment has been deposited. Because of
this temporal relationship, burrows normally cross-cut other
deposition-related sedimentary structures like bedding and
laminations.
In some areas, burrowing is so extensive that the
sedimentary bedding is pervasively disrupted. The process
of disruption of deposition-related sedimentary structures is
known as bioturbation.
 Burrow morphologies are amazingly diverse,
and include a variety of wall structures
(layered, packed with fecal pellets, lined with
mud or sand), sediment infill (sorted or not
sorted, similar or different grainsizes), and
many geometries (branched tubes,
subhorizontal and/or subvertical orientation,
curved tubes, U-shaped tubes, mesh
geometries, cone-shaped, etc.).
 Geometries composed of cylindrical shapes are
by far the most common (e.g., a burrow may
be branched, but segments will most often be
cylindrical).
 Thalassinoides sp. burrow.
A type of dwelling burrow
(domichnia) common in shelf
marine environments. This type
of burrow is probably produced
by a lobster, crayfish, or other
type of burrowing crustacean, as
indicated by similar modern
burrows and occasional
preservation of the crustacean
within the burrow as a body
fossil.
This specimen is from the Upper
Cretaceous Bad Heart Formation
in Alberta.
 Ophiomorpha sp.
burrow. Another type
of burrow produced
by crustaceans. Note
the angular junction
between segments of
the burrow. From
the Upper Cretaeous
Semilla Sandstone,
New Mexico, U.S.A.
 TRACKS
 A track is any marking or impression made in
a substrate by the foot or hand of an animal.
Opinions vary on how many tracks constitute a
trackway, but for our purposes
 Substrates for track preservation vary
considerably but most tracks are formed in
unconsolidated sediments and fossil examples
show the same preservational bias.
 Exceptions include crushing of hard substrates
by the feet of heavy animals (i.e., dinosaurs
that stepped on bivalve shells or bones) or
claw marks left in wood
 Tracks made by vertebrates can be classified on the
basis of whether they were made by bipedal (two-
legged) or quadrupedal (four-legged) animals.
 Bipedalism typically involves movement from one
opposite foot to another (right to left or left to right),
whereas quadrupedalism can use any variation of four
limbs (two right and two left) moving in harmony.
 The order of foot placement is determined by the
behavior of the animal, depending on whether it is
walking, trotting, bounding (hopping), or galloping,
as well as which direction it is moving.
TRAILS
 A trail is an impression made on a surface by the body of a
limbless animal. Common usage of the term "trail" implies that
it is a synonym of "trackway" or that a well-worn path in a
terrestrial ecosystem is a trail (as in a "game trail," made by
game animals).
 Although these colloquial meanings are understandable to
most people, the distinction between the method of locomotion
by a limbed versus a limbless animal is an important one,
hence the distinction made here.
 The surficial aspect of a trail is also distinctive from a burrow,
which represents an excavation into a sediment, rather than the
displacement or compaction of sedimentary grains on a
surface.
 A trail does not necessarily have to form on an exposed
surface; some trails follow horizontal bedding planes within a
sedimentary pile, hence these are called intrastratal trails.
Trails that formed on an exposed surface are called epistratal
trails.
BURROWS
 A burrow is any biogenic structure that involves
excavation of an unconsolidated (nonindurated)
substrate by an organism; the process of forming a
burrow by an organisms is burrowing but is also
generally called bioturbation (literally "life
mixing"). Burrows are primarily associated with
excavations in sediment; other types of "burrowing,"
such as digging into soft tissue (i.e., leaf mines made
by insects), are actually more properly termed
borings because they permanently erode the
structural integrity of a consolidated substrate.
 A continuum of biogenic structures in sedimentary
rocks can range from softground to firmground to
hardground traces; softground and firmground
traces are considered as burrows, whereas hardground
traces are borings.
BORINGS
 A boring is any biogenic structure that
involves erosion of an already consolidated
substrate by an organism; the process of
forming a boring by an organism is
bioerosion.
 Although most geologists may think of borings
as formed exclusively in rocks, other
substrates suitable for borings include wood,
shells, bones, or eggs. Under the definition
given here, toothmarks also could be
considered as borings.
 Tracemakers of borings are quite diverse, ranging from algae
to tyrannosaurs. A partial listing of bioeroders includes some
types of fungi, foraminiferans, poriferans, cnidarians,
nematodes, phoronids, bryozoans, brachiopods, sipunculids,
polychaetes, bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods, amphineurans,
arthropods, echinoids, and fish.
 Probably the best-known bioeroders are bivalves, of which
certain species can bore into rocks and wood. In continental
environments, wood has been a preferred substrate for some
insect species, such as termites, ants, and bees, as well as
woodpeckers. Claw marks left by modern bears on trees are
borings,
 Toothmarks, which I will restrict in usage here to mean marks
made by vertebrates with teeth, have been attributed to fossil
organisms such as sharks, mosasaurs, or theropods.
 However, some invertebrates, such as predatory octopi or
gastropods, can leave toothlike marks in bivalve shells through
their beak and radula, respectively.
 A continuum of biogenic structures in sedimentary
rocks can range from softground to firmground to
hardground traces; this continuum represents a
change in relative water content in the original
sediment to a state of cementation.
 Borings made in marine-related environments often
represent a hiatus in deposition that formed a
hardground or, in the case of a wood accumulation, a
woodground.
 Hardgrounds are typically represented by the
Trypanites ichnofacies, whereas woodgrounds are
represented by the Teredolites ichnofacies.
 The Scoyenia ichnofacies includes borings made in
continental settings, although subdivision of this
ichnofacies would be very helpful for better
representation of the diversity of borings reflecting
environmentally sensitive factors
Coprolites

Age: ?Jurassic
Formation: ?Morrison
Location: Utah, USA
Collector: Lowentor
Museum of Natural History,
Stuttgart, Germany
Photographer: A. J. Martin
Comments: This coprolite
has been interpreted as a
product of a sauropod
because of its large size
(about 40 cm diameter from
what I recall).
 Age:
 Formation:
 Location:
 Collector:
 Photographer: A. J.
Martin
 Comments: Although I do
not have any further
information on this
specimen, the presence of
some bone material in the
coprolite indicates either a
carnivore or omnivore,
probably mammalian, was
the trace maker. I showed
this specimen to a tracker
who really enjoyed
applying his interpretive
skills to "scat" that did not
have any unpleasant odors
associated with it.
 Coprolites are fossilized feces, which can
range from sand-sized pellets made by
invertebrates (typically just called pellets by
sedimentary petrologists when encountered in
thin section) to the large, lump-like masses left
by dinosaurs. Coprolites are extremely
valuable trace fossils for interpreting paleodiet
of organisms.
 The study of modern feces is colloquially
called "scatology" by trackers and naturalists
and is very useful for indirect estimates of
animal populations and their ecology in
terrestrial environments.
EGGS AND NESTS
 An egg is an enclosed, mineralized structure
containing an amniote (yolk sac) that helps to nourish
the developing embryo.
 The structure is a type of protection for the embryo
that also keeps all of its nutrients in a restricted space.
In contras t, amphibians require a water source for
their eggs, hence times of drought (and consequent
shrinkage of aquatic habitats) can be detrimental to
amphibian reproduction.
 Amniotic eggs also have a porous and permeable
structure that allows the developing e mbryo to
"breathe," thus offering protection but also allowing
an exchange with the surrounding environment.
 A nest is a biogenic structure typically containing a
clutch and commonly represented by an arrangement
of eggs in a semicircular or spiraled pattern. In some
instances, a raised area surrounding the eggs will
denote the border of the nest, which may be evident
as a bowl-like depression.
 Nests most likely to have been preserved in the
geologic record were on the ground and excavated in
soft sediment. Some modern reptiles and a few birds
(i.e., penguins) use this strategy and at least some
dinosa urs used it, too.
 Nests made in trees, like those made by many modern
birds, and as vegetative piles on the ground, such as
those made by some crocodilians, would have had
low preservation potential.
 Arenicolites isp Arthophycus isp.

Arenicolites is a simple U-shaped Arthophycus is a horizontal, simple or

burrow oriented perpendicular to branched, straight to curved, annulated
bedding. Different types of burrow that shows well-defined and
Arencolites can be interpreted on regularly spaced ridges within the
the basis of the breadth of the U. burrow fill. Arthrophycus is interpreted
as a feeding burrow made by a worm-
like animal.
Asteriacites isp. Aulichnites isp.

Asteriacites is a horizontal, five-

pointed, star-shaped burrow. Aulichnites is a horizontally
Asteriacites is interpreted as a oriented trail having two bilaterally
resting trace made by an symmetrical convex ridges that are
asterozoan, either a stelleroid commonly divided by a medial
or ophiuroid. groove. Aulichnites is intepreted as
a crawling or grazing trace made
by a gastropod.
Barypodus isp. Camborygma isp

Camborygma is a large, vertically oriented

Barypodus is a track made by burrow with some scratchmarks present on
a quadrupedal tetrapod burrow exteriors and some specimens show
vertebrate thick mud lining; burrow diameters are 5-10
cm and burrow lengths can be as much as
3-5 meters. Probable tracemaker is a
crayfish that burrowed down to the water
table in continental environments.
 Chabutolithes isp.
Celliforma isp

Celliforma is a vertically oriented Chabutolithes is a horizontally to

subcylindrical to flask-shaped burrow or obliquely oriented, bilobate burrow
boring with a rounded termination; in showing numerous scratchmarks
burrows a remanent of a cap is visible as oblique to perpendicular from the
a ring within the burrow. Probable burrow midline (superficially similar to
tracemaker was a bee, which either Rusophycus). Probable tracemaker
burrowed into a sandy substrate or bored was a burrowing wasp, possibly
into wood and used the structure as a Pompilidae, that used the structure as
brooding chamber. a nest.
Cheirotherium isp. Dactyloidites isp

Dactyloidites is horizontal burrow structure

that has a rosetted appearance in plan view; it
also can show remanents of a central vertical
Cheirotherium is a track made shaft. Dactyloidites is interpreted as a
by a quadrupedal tetrapod cumulative deposit-feeding burrow produced
vertebrate by a worm-like animal.
Chondrites isp
Chondrites is a branching, vertically to horizontally oriented feeding burrow; the
three-dimensional character of Chondrites can be visualized by imagining an
upside-down tree, with a main burrow "trunk" connecting to the sediment-water
interface and increasingly complex branches downward into the sediment.
Chondrites is interpreted as a feeding burrow that is often associated with low-
oxygen substrates, although there are exceptions to this generality
 Climactichnites isp.

Climactichnites is a horizontally oriented trackway characterized by well-

defined arched or V-shaped ridges and finer arcuate rill marks.
Climactichnites is typically larger (about 15 cm diameter) than most
similar trackways, such as Cruziana. Climactichnites has numerous
interpretations regarding its tracemaker, including crustaceans,
eurypterids, trilobites, and mollusks.
 Conichnus isp
Conichnus is a vertically oriented burrow with a cone-in-cone structure
that tapers in the downward direction. Conichnus differs from Rosellia in
that the bottom of the burrow terminates in a point, rather than continuing
into a narrower tube. Conichnus is interpreted as a resting trace with
evidence of equilibrium as a sessile organism (probably an anemone)
moved upward in response to sedimentation
 Dimetropus isp. Eatonichnus isp.

Dimetropus is a track made by a Eatonichnus is a vertically oriented,

quadrupedal tetrapod vertebrate and is annulated, pluglike burrow showing
affiliated with pelycosaurs, such as its some scratchmarks on the burrow
supposed tracemaker namesake, exterior. Probable tracemaker was a
Dimetrodon. burrowing wasp, possibly Sphecidae,
that used the burrow as a nest.
 Dimorphichnus isp
Dimorphichnus is a horizontal trackway with two sets of impressions: thin and long
scratch marks that are straight to slightly curved, and short prod marks. Both sets
of marks are oblique to the overall direction of movement indicated by the
trackway. Dimorphichnus is interpreted as a lateral grazing trace made by a
trilobite, where the prod marks are toe impressions and the scratch marks are from
raking movement
 Diplocraterion isp.
Diplocraterion is a U-shaped burrow oriented perpendicular to bedding;
spreite are apparent between the limbs of the U. Diplocraterion is
interpreted as a dwelling burrow made by an animal that adjusted its
burrow either up or down in response to increased sedimentation or
erosion, respectively.
 Entomichnus isp Monocraterion isp.

Monocraterion is a simple vertically

oriented burrow that shows a funnel-like
projection at the top of the burrow;
erosion of the burrow top can make this
Entomichnus is a vertically oriented,
trace fossil indentifiable as Skolithos.
spiraled burrow with numerous
Monocraterion is interpreted as a
smaller burrows branching from the
combined dwelling and feeding burrow
main spirals. Probable tracemaker is
where the funnel probably served as a
a termite, specifically a termite nest
trap for prey organisms moving near the
burrow opening; the probable
tracemaker is a polychaete worm.
 Gyrolithes isp Gyrophyllites isp.

Gyrophyllites is s vertically or obliquely oriented burrow

that has a number of leaf-like projections that extend from
the central shaft in a helical pattern; Gyrophyllites is
interpreted as a feeding burrow made by an animal that
made repeated probes into the sediment in a radial
pattern.

Gyrolithes is a vertically oriented burrow that shows

a tightly spiraling form in vertical section; the breadth
of the sprial is consistent throughout the length of the
burrow. In some instances, Gyrolithes is interpreted
as a dwelling structure that may have had some
feeding combined; and arthropod tracemaker is
probable.
 Kouphichnium isp. Neonereites isp

Kouphichnium is a horizontally
oriented, bilaterally symmetrical
trackway that can be quite variable Neonereites is a meandering,
but in best examples shows horizontally oriented trail, typically on
"birdfoot"-like footprints in bedding plane surfaces, filled with
association with a medial single or double pellets. Neonereites is
dragmark. Probable tracemaker intepreted as a feeding trace from an
was a limulid (horseshoe crab) in animal that grazed along a sediment
either marine or nonmarine surface, leaving behind regular fecal
environments pellets.
Laoporus isp.

Laoporus is a track made by a

quadrupedal tetrapod
vertebrate and has been
attributed to synapsids
Lockeia isp.
Lockeia is an ovoid,
biconvex, and
bilaterally
symmetrical trace
fossil, typically
preserved as a
positive relief trace
on the bottom of a
bed. The overall
shape is similar to
an almond (and
about the same
size). Lockeia is
interpreted as a
bivalve resting trace.
Navahopus isp

Navahopus is a
track made by a
quadrupedal
tetrapod
vertebrate.
This particular
ichnogenus has
been attributed to
prosauropod
tracemakers
Nereites isp.

Nereites is a meandering trail with a medial furrow and closely-spaced lobes

on either side of the furrow. The meandering can be very tight, causing the
trace to occupy a large amount of an affected area. Nereites is interpreted as
an feeding trail formed on a sediment surface, perhaps as an intrastratal
trace.

Palaeophycus isp.

Palaeophycus is a simple burrow that can

(but typically does not) show branching, is
oriented horizontal or oblique to bedding,
and has a distinctive burrow lining.
Palaeophycus is interpreted as a
combined feeding and dwelling burrow
made by a worm-like animal
 Ophiomorpha isp
Ophiomorpha is a branching burrow with either horizontal, oblique, or vertical box-
like networks; the burrow exterior is characterized by a knobby texture formed by a
pelletal lining, but in some cases only an internal mold of the burrow is evident.
Ophiomorpha is interpreted as a combined dwelling and feeding burrow made by
a shrimp-like animal; modern callianassid shrimp show the same burrow geometry
and pelletal reinforcement of their burrows.
Paleodictyon isp.
Paleohelcura isp

Paleohelcura is a
Paleodictyon is a polygonal trail trackway consisting of two
oriented parallel to bedding on parallel rows of tracks; the
bedding plane surfaces. The tracks are typically in
geometry of Paleodictyon is groups of three and a
normally a hexagonal network, medial drag mark is
forming a "honeycomb" pattern. occasionally between the
Paleodictyon is interpreted as a track rows. The probable
"farming" trace, where the tracemaker was an
tracemaking animal made a arachnid (possibly a
systematic mucuous-lined trail scorpion), typically found
that it later grazed after some in rocks formed in
microbial colonies grew on the continental environments
organics-rich trail.
 Paleoscolytus isp.
Paleoscolytus is a variously oriented, simple, thin, cylindrical boring found
in woody substrates. Probable tracemaker was a wood-boring beetle,
such as those of Scolididae.
 Phycosiphon isp.
Phycodes isp.
Phycosiphon is a horizontally to obliquely
oriented burrow having U-shaped loops
that make an overall "antler-like" form for
the trace. Phycosiphon is interpreted as a
feeding burrow made by a worm-like
animal

Phycodes is a horizontally to
obliquely oriented burrow
that shows a "broomlike"
branching from a central
burrow. Phycodes is
interpreted as a feeding
burrow made by repeated
probes by an animal into the
sediment
 Psammichnites isp. Rusophycus isp.

Psammichnites is a Rusophycus is a horizontally oriented

horizontally oriented trail with bilobate, ovoid-shaped burrow that has
a narrow medial ridge and parallel to subparallel scratch marks
finer transverse ridges; the laterally extending from a central
overall form is straight to bisecting plane. . Rusophycus is a
curvaceous, in some cases resting trace made by a trilobite or a
making loops. Psammichnites trilobite-like arthropod.
is interpreted as a gastropod
grazing trace
 Planolites isp
Planolites is a simple meandering burrow oriented horizontal or oblique to bedding; it is
typically distinguished from Palaeophycus by its lack of a burrow lining. Planolites is
interpreted as a feeding burrow made by a worm-like animal
 Psilonichnus isp.
Psilonichnus is a vertically oriented burrow that normally shows Y-
branching toward the burrow top. Psilonichnus is interpreted as a dwelling
burrow for arthropods in dune or marsh environments; the most probable
tracemaker was a crab, such as modern Ocypode.
 Rhizocorallium isp.
Rhizocorallium is a horizontally or obliquely oriented, U-shaped burrow that
shows spreite between the limbs of the U. This trace fossil is distinguished
from Diplocraterion by its horizontal attitude. Rhizocorallium is interpreted
as a feeding burrow where the animal moved horizontally through the
sediment in a systematic feeding pattern
 Plant Trace Fossils
The most common trace fossils left by plant activity are root traces, which
show the branching and irregular morphology normally associated with
living plant roots.
Rosselia isp.

Rosselia is a vertically oriented burrow that shows concentric cone-in-cone structure

inside the burrow; the burrow markedly constricts in a downward direction. Rosselia
is interpreted as a dwelling burrow where a sessile animal moved its burrow upward
as an equilibrium response to sedimentation
Rotodactylus isp is a track made by a quadrupedal tetrapod vertebrate
Scalarituba isp Schaubcylindrichnus isp.

Schaubcylindrichnus is a vertically
Scalarituba is a simple, horizontally to obliquely oriented, well-lined
or obliquely oriented, meandering burrow; individual burrows are
burrow that shows a chevron or slightly curved and occur in
"scale-like" pattern within the closely-spaced clusters.
burrow. Scalarituba is interpreted as Schaubcylindrichnus is
a feeding burrow where the animal interpreted as a dwelling burrow
packed its burrow behind it as it made by a worm-like animal.
moved through the sediment
 Scoyenia isp. Spirophycus isp.

Scoyenia is a horizontal to vertically Spirophycus is a simple, tightly

oriented, simple, straight to slightly meandering horizontally oriented trail,
curved burrow with a "rope-like" parallel to bedding and typically
architecture; individual burrows comonly preserved as an impression on a
cross one another. Scoyenia is bedding plane surface. Spirophycus
interpreted as a feeding burrow made by is interpreted as a feeding trace left
an arthropod (possibly a larval beetle) by a worm-like animal as it grazed
and is typically associated with across a sediment surface or within a
nonmarine environments, originally bedding interface
formed in moist soils
 Skolithos isp.
Skolithos is a simple, tube-like, vertically oriented burrow that typically shows a much
greater length versus width. Skolithos is interpreted as a dwelling burrow made by a
suspension-feeding animal
Teichichnus isp. Trichophycus isp.

Teichichnus is a simple Trichophycus is a horizontally to

horizontally or obliquely oriented obliquely oriented burrow that has a
burrow that shows vertically to broad "banana-like" U-shape,
obliquely oriented spreite. scratch marks in the burrow wall,
Teichichnus is interpreted as a and can (but does not necessarily)
feeding burrow, probably made show some vertically oriented
by a deposit-feeding bivalve, that spreite. Trichophycus is interpreted
moved its burrow up or down in a as a combined feeding and dwelling
vertical plane for systematic burrow for a large arthropod
feeding
 Teredolites isp
Teredolites is a club-shaped, vertically to obliquely oriented boring that typically
shows annulations on the boring wall and is preserved in woodgrounds (coal beds)
or as boring casts from woodgrounds. Teredolites is interpreted as a combined
feeding and dwelling trace made by wood-boring bivalves in woodgrounds that were
submerged under marine water
 Thalassinoides isp.
Thalassinoides is a branching burrow (Y- or T-shaped branches) with either
horizontal, oblique, or vertical box-like networks and enlargements at junctions
between some branches. Unlike Ophiomorpha, Thalassinoides has smooth walls.
Thalassinoides is interpreted as a combined feeding and dwelling burrow, but has
been observed as a boring in some cases. The probable tracemaker was an
arthropod
Trypanites isp

Trypanites is a simple, vertically to obliquely oriented

boring that can curve slightly and have rounded
terminations. Trypanites is interpreted as a dwelling
structure where the tracemaker bored into a hard
substrate.
 Zoophycos isp.
Zoophycos is a horizontally to obliquely oriented burrow that shows a helical
structure as a result of overlapping U-shaped burrows that have spreite
between the U's. (Author's note - this is a difficult burrow for me to describe
with words.)
Zoophycos is interpreted as a systematic feeding burrow where the animal
probed into the sediment in a U-shape swath, then repeated the same type
of swath adjacent to the previous swath, moving in a clockwise or
counterclockwise direction.
 A promising area for future applications of
ichnofacies in facies analysis is in
hydrogeology and other aspects of
environmental geology.
 Hydrogeologists often must approximate
many of the same parameters (porosity,
permeability, facies architecture) sought
by petroleum geologists, hence
ichnofacies present another important set
of data for these geoscientists