APPLIED MATERIAL
(SDD 24202)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
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OBJECTIVES
After learning this topic, student will be able:
1. Name the two most common hardness-testing
techniques; note two differences between them.
2. (a) Name and briefly describe the two different
microindentation hardness testing techniques
(b) cite situations for which these techniques are
generally used.
3. Given an engineering stress-strain diagram, determine
(a) the modulus of elasticity
(b) the yield strength
(c) the tensile strength
(d) estimate the percent elongation
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The mechanical properties of materials that
are of importance in structural designs are:
Elasticity
The ability of a material to absorb force and flex in
different directions, returning to its original position.
Our technology technician demonstrates the ‘elasticity’
of a material by springing up and down on a piece of
steel rod.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (cont)
Plasticity
The ability of a material to be change in shape
permanently.
Our technology technician and his twin brother
demonstrate the ‘plasticity’ of a molten
aluminium by pouring it into a mould. Once the
aluminium has cooled down, it can be removed
from the casting sand. It has a new shape.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (cont)
Ductility
The ability of a material to change shape
(deform) usually by stretching along its length.
Our technician stretches the lead above his
head. As it stretches if deforms (changes shape).
PARAMETERS
Some of the important measurable
parameters that are associated with the
mechanical behaviour of materials are:
Hardness
Elastic modulus
Yield strength
Tensile strength
Toughness, etc
HARDNESS
The hardness of a material is defined as its resistance to permanent
indentation or abrasion.
Large hardness means:
resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
better wear properties.
The strength for a particular material is roughly proportional to the
hardness; thus the higher the hardness of a material, the higher is
likely to be the tensile strength.
The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear and indentation.
Our technology technician, dressed in a kilt, slides along the floor to see if it will scratch. It will be
considered to hard wearing if it resists scratching.
Hardness testing
Three common hardness measuring tests are
Rockwell test
Brinell test
Microhardness (Vickers/Knoop) test
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided
plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond
increasing hardness
Hardness
Designations
Hardness Diameter of
Brinell indenter
203 HB 5/3000/20
Hardness Applied force Duration (sec)
value (kgf)
Hardness Applied force
Vickers (kgf)
640 HV 30
Hardness
value
Hardness
Designations
Hardness
Indenter
Rockwell
type B
Hardness 203 HR B
value
Hardness
Indenter type
Rockwell
B
640 HR C
Hardness
value
Hardness testing
Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell testing machine operates somewhat like a press, using a
indenter to penetrate the surface of the test sample.
The depth of the indentation determines the materials hardness on a scale
of 0-100
There are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the
"B", and "C" scales. Both express hardness as an arbitrary dimensionless
number.
The B-scale is used for softer materials (such as aluminum, brass, and
softer steels). It employs a hardened steel ball as the indenter and a 100kg
weight to obtain a value expressed as "HRB".
The C-scale, for harder materials, uses a diamond cone, known as a Brale
indenter and a 150kg weight to obtain a value expressed as "HRC".
The depth of penetration is converted to a scale in which the harder the
material the higher the number.
Brinell Hardness Test
Introduction
Proposed by a Swedish engineer; Johan August
Brinell (1849 - 1925) in 1900
Brinell Testing refers to surface fatigue caused by
repeated impact or overloading.
The Brinell method presses the “indenter” into a
sample for a given period of time.
The ability for the sample to resist indentation
determines hardness.
Hardness Testing
Brinell Hardness Test
The typical test uses a 10 mm diameter steel ball as an indenter with
a 3,000 kgf (29 kN) force.
For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder materials, a
tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.
The indentation is measured and hardness calculated as:
where:
P = applied force (kgf)
D = diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
Hardness testing
Microhardness Test
Microhardness testers allow you to measure a materials hardness
while leaving the least amount of damage possible on the metals
surface.
After the indenter is used, a powerful microscope is used to
determine the the amount of indentation into the components
surface.
The term microhardness test usually refers to static indentations
made with loads not exceeding 1 kgf.
The indenter is either the Vickers diamond pyramid or the Knoop
elongated diamond pyramid.
The surface being tested generally requires a metallographic finish;
the smaller the load used, the higher the surface finish required.
Precision microscopes are used to measure the indentations
Microhardness Test
Vickers vs Knoop
Vickers indenter penetrates Knoop test best for small
about twice as deep as Knoop elongated areas
indenter Knoop test good for very hard
Vickers indentation diagonal brittle materials and very thin
about 1/3 of the length of sections
Knoop major diagonal
Vickers test is less sensitive to
surface conditions than Knoop
test
Vickers test is more sensitive
to measurement errors than
Knoop test
Vickers test best for small
rounded areas
Microhardness Test
Vickers Hardness Test
The Vickers hardness test was developed in the early 1920s and
uses a pyramid-shaped indenter made of diamond.
It is based on the principle that impressions made by this indenter
are geometrically similar regardless of load.
Accordingly, loads of various size are applied, depending on the
hardness of the material to be measured.
The Vickers Hardness (HV) is then determined from the formula
where
F = applied load, kg;
D = the mean of the two diagonals of the impression made by the
indenter, in mm.
STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR
Elastic behaviour
The mechanical behaviour of a material is tested by applying an
external load on the material and studying the response of the material
to the load.
The applied load is called STRESS,
(stress is the force applied per unit area-Newton/m2)
The deformation of the materials is measured is call STRAIN, , (strain
is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension
& has no unit)
Elastic material
Plastic behaviour
plasticity is a property of a material to undergo a non-
reversible change of shape in response to an applied force.
Plastic deformation occurs under shear stress, as opposed
to brittle fractures which occur under normal stress.
The transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is
called yield.
STRESS-STRAIN
Determines the strength of the material when
subjected to a simple stretching operation.
Engineering Strain = Change in Length / Original Length
The engineering stress is defined as :
Engineering Stress = Applied Force /Original Area
Fracture of a Flat Tensile Test
Specimen
Stress -Strain Diagram
STRESS-STRAIN
STRESS-STRAIN
Ductile Materials
1 Ultimate/Tensile Strength
2 Yield Strength
3 Proportional Limit Stress
4 Rupture
5 Offset Strain (usually 0.002)
STRESS-STRAIN
Brittle Materials
a.k.a Young’s Modulus
The initial slope of the curve, related directly to
the strength of the atomic bonds.
Modulus of Elasticity = E = Change in Stress / Change in Strain
STRESS-STRAIN
Tensile Stress and Strength
Tensile stress attempts to pull the material
apart.
Tensile strength is the material’s ability to
resist this pulling
STRESS-STRAIN
Tensile Stress and Strength
STRESS-STRAIN
Compression Stress and Strength
Compression stress attempts to squeeze the
material.
Compressive strength is the ability to resist
being squeezed.
STRESS-STRAIN
Shear Stress and Strength
Shear stresses attempt to force the material to
slide against itself sideways
STRESS-STRAIN
Shear Stress and Strength
Shear strength is the ability to resist internal
sliding.
Torsional stress is really a special type of
shear stress. This stress applies a rotational
motion on one end that attempts to twist the
material.
STRESS-STRAIN
Ductility
Ductility is a metal’s ability to be drawn,
stretched, and permanently deformed
without breaking.
Ductile metals can easily be drawn into long
bars or shaped by cold working.
Ductility describes the amount of plastic
deformation a material can endure before it
breaks.
STRESS-STRAIN
Ductility
BRITTLENESS
If a material fractures under mild impact,
it is considered brittle
Brittleness is undesirable but can be
accepted because of some other useful
properties in brittle materials.
TOUGHNESS
Toughness is the ability of a material to
absorb energy before it breaks.
Impact toughness is a particular category
of toughness that describes the ability of
a material to withstand a sudden sharp
blow.
TOUGHNESS
TOUGHNESS
ELASTICITY
The ability of a metal to return to its
original shape after any force acting on it
has been removed.
PLASTICITY
Plasticity is the ability of a material to
deform permanently without breaking or
rupturing.
FATIGUE FAILURE
Fatigue failure is the result of loads cycling
and off or in opposite directions.
Fatigue failure may result even if the
tensile strength limits of the material have
not been exceeded.
MALLEABILITY
The ability of material to be easily rolled,
formed, or shaped.
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