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Calculus Powerpoint

The document discusses sequences and series in mathematics. It defines a sequence as a list of numbers in a given order, and notes that order is important. Sequences can converge, meaning the terms approach a single value, or diverge. A series represents the sum of the terms in a sequence, and the document explores various tests to determine if a series converges or diverges, such as the integral test, p-series test, ratio test, and alternating series test. It also introduces Taylor and Maclaurin series as representations of functions as an infinite series.

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barry
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502 views

Calculus Powerpoint

The document discusses sequences and series in mathematics. It defines a sequence as a list of numbers in a given order, and notes that order is important. Sequences can converge, meaning the terms approach a single value, or diverge. A series represents the sum of the terms in a sequence, and the document explores various tests to determine if a series converges or diverges, such as the integral test, p-series test, ratio test, and alternating series test. It also introduces Taylor and Maclaurin series as representations of functions as an infinite series.

Uploaded by

barry
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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SEQUENCE:

Sequences are fundamental to the study of


infinite series and many applications of
mathematics.
Eg. A sequence is a list of numbers a1 , a2 ,
a3 , . . . , an , . . . in a given order. Each of a1, a2,
a3 and so on represents a number. These are the
terms of the sequence. For example, the sequence
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …,2n, first term a1 = 2, second
term a2 = 4, and nth term an = 2n. The integer n is
called the index of an, and indicates where an
occurs in the list. Order is important.
The sequence 2, 4, 6, 8 . . . is not the same as the
sequence 4, 2, 6, 8 . . . . We can think of the
sequence a1, a2, a3, …, an … as a function that
sends 1 to a1, 2 to a2, 3 to a3, and in general sends
the positive integer n to the nth term an. More
precisely, an infinite sequence of numbers is a
function whose domain is the set of positive
integers. The function associated with the sequence
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,… ,2n,... sends 1 to a1 = 2, 2 to a2
= 4, and so on. The general behavior of this
sequence is described by the formula an = 2n…
Convergence and Divergence:
Sometimes the numbers in a sequence approach
a single value as the index n increases.
This happens in the sequence
Eg.
{1,1/2,1/3,1/4,…..,1/n,…}

CONVERGENCE:
The sequence {an} converges to the number L
if for every positive number P there corresponds
an integer N such that for all n,
n>N → |an – L| < e.
if no such number L exists, we say that
{an} diverges.
If {an} converges to L, we write
Lim
n→∞ , an=L.or simply an →L, and call L the
limit of the sequence.
Eg.
Show that Lim 1/n=0
n→∞

1/∞=0
Therefore the sequence is convergent.
The sequence {an}diverges to infinity if for
every number M there is an integer N such
that for all n larger than N, an >M. If this
condition holds we write
Lim an =∞ (or) an →∞
n→∞
Similarly, if for every number m there is
an integer N such that for all n > N we
Have an <M, thn we say the sequence diverges
to negative in finity,
Lim an = - ∞ (or) an → - ∞
n→∞
2. Show that the sequence {1, -1, 1,
-1, 1, -1, …, (-1)^(n+1), …}
diverges .

Sol:
The value oscillates from -1 to 1
and does not converge to a single value.
Hence the sequence is said to be
divergent when n→∞.
Sandwich Theorem for Sequences:

Let {an}, {bn}, {cn}be sequences of real


numbers. If an<= bn <=cn holds for all n beyond
some index N, and if
Lim an = Lim cn = L,
n→∞ n→∞
Then,
lim bn = L
n→∞
Eg. Show that cosn/n=0
1/n<=cos n/n<=1/n
Sol:
By sandwich theorem,
lim an = lim bn = 0
n→∞ n→∞

Therefore lim cos n/n=0.


n→∞
(
Examples:

1.The sequence 1,2,3,4,…n,… is non


decreasing.
2.The sequence 1/2,2/3,3/4,…n/(n+1),.. Is
non decreasing
Infinite Series

1 1 1 1 1
 2n  2  4  8  16  ...
n 1
Represents the sum of the terms in a sequence.
We want to know if the series converges to
a single value i.e. there is a finite sum.

1 1  1  1  1  ...
n 1
The series diverges because sn = n. Note that the
Sequence {1} converges.
�
Partial sums of 1 1 1 1 1 1
�n(n  1)  2  6  12  20  30  ...
1 1 n 1
s1  
1� 2 2
1 1 2
s2   
1� 2 2� 3 3
1 1 1 3
s3    
1� 2 2� 3 3� 4 4
and
1 1 1 1 n
sn     ... 
1�2 2� 3 3�4 n( n  1) n  1

If the sequence of partial sums converges,


the series converges
1 2 3 4 5 n
, , , , ... ... Converges to 1 so series converges.
2 3 4 5 6 n 1
Geometric Series

1 1 1 1 1
 2n    
2 4 8 16
 ...
n 1

Each term is obtained from the preceding


number by multiplying by the same number r.
Find r (the common ratio)
1 1 1 1
    ...
5 25 125 625
2 4 8 16
    ...
3 3 3 3
Series known to converge or diverge
1. A geometric series with | r | <1 converges
2. A repeating decimal converges
3. Telescoping series converge
A necessary condition for convergence:
Limit as n goes to infinity for nth term
in sequence is 0.
nth term test for divergence:
If the limit as n goes to infinity for the nth
term is not 0, the series DIVERGES!
The Integral Test
Let {an} be a sequence of positive terms.
Suppose that an = f(n) where f is a continuous
positive, decreasing function of x for all xN.
Then the series and the corresponding integral
shown both converge of both diverge.

f(n) f(x)
 
 an  f ( x)dx
n N
N
Harmonic series and p-series

1
 np Is called a p-series
n 1

A p-series converges if p > 1 and diverges


If p < 1 or p = 1.

1 1 1 1 1 1
n  1    
2 3 4 5
 ....
n
 ....
n 1

Is called the harmonic series and it


diverges since p =1.
Limit Comparison
Comparison test test
an
lim x   c, 0c
bn  

Then the following series  an and n1bn


n 1
both converge or both diverge:

an  
lim x 
bn
0 and Amd bn Converges then  an Converges
n 1 n 1

an  
lim x 
bn

and  bn Diverges then  an Diverges
n 1 n 1
Ratio Test

Let  an be a series with positive terms and
n N
an 1
lim n  
an

Then
• The series converges if ρ < 1
• The series diverges if ρ > 1
• The test is inconclusive if ρ = 1.
Root Test

Let  an be a series with non-zero terms and
n N
lim n  n | an |  L

Then
• The series converges if L< 1
• The series diverges if L > 1 or is infinite
• The test is inconclusive if L= 1.
Alternating Series
• A series in which the terms are alternately
positive and negative is an Alternating Series.
• Examples :
• THEOREM 15—The Alternating Series Test
The series

• (-1)^(n+1)un = u1 - u2 + u3 - u4 + g

• Converges if the following conditions are


satisfied:
1. The un>s are all positive.
2. The un>s are eventually non increasing: un
>=un+1 for all n Ú N, for some integer N.
3. un 0.
• This is also called as Lebitniz Therom.
Absolutely Converging Series:

• A series  an converges absolutely if the


n N

corresponding series of absolute value converges.


• Example:
Conditionally Converging Series:
• A series that converge but doesn’t converge
absolutely is called conditionally convergent series.
• Example:

.
Moving from Series which converge at an
interval to Taylor Series
Taylor & Maclaurin Series
An Example…
Taylor Polynomials
An Example…

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