Project Management

Romi Satria Wahono

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Learning Objectives
• Describe the systems view of project management and how
it applies to information technology projects
• Understand organizations, including the four frames,
organizational structures, and organizational culture
• Explain why stakeholder management and top management
commitment are critical for a project’s success
• Understand the concept of a project phase and the project
life cycle and distinguish between project development and
product development
• Discuss the unique attributes and diverse nature of
information technology projects
• Describe recent trends affecting IT project management,
including globalization, outsourcing, and virtual teams

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Projects Cannot Be Run in Isolation
• Projects must operate in a broad
organizational environment
• Project managers need to use systems
thinking:
• Taking a holistic view of carrying out projects
within the context of the organization
• Senior managers must make sure projects
continue to support current business needs

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A Systems View of Project
Management
• A systems approach emerged in the 1950s to
describe a more analytical approach to
management and problem solving
• Three parts include:
1. Systems philosophy: an overall model for thinking about
things as systems
2. Systems analysis: problem-solving approach
3. Systems management: address business, technological,
and organizational issues before making changes to
systems

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Three Sphere Model for Systems
Management

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Discussion
• Jelaskan model tiga lingkup kegiatan
manajemen sistem!

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 Understanding Organizations
Structural frame: Focuses on
Human resources frame: Focuses
roles and responsibilities,
on providing harmony between
coordination and control.
needs of the organization and
Organization charts help define
needs of people.
this frame.

Understanding
Organizations
Political frame: Assumes
organizations are coalitions Symbolic frame: Focuses on
composed of varied individuals symbols and meanings related to
and interest groups. Conflict and events. Culture is important.
power are key issues.

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What Went Wrong?
• Many enterprise resource planning (ERP) projects fail due to
organizational issues, not technical issues. For example,
Sobey’s Canadian grocery store chain abandoned its two-
year, $90 million ERP system due to organizational
problems.
• As Dalhousie University Associate Professor Sunny Marche
states, “The problem of building an integrated system that
can accommodate different people is a very serious
challenge. You can’t divorce technology from the
sociocultural issues. They have an equal role.” Sobey’s ERP
system shut down for five days, and employees were
scrambling to stock potentially empty shelves in several
stores for weeks. The system failure cost Sobey’s more than
$90 million and caused shareholders to take an 82-cent
after-tax hit per share.*
Hoare, Eva. “Software hardships,” The Herald, Halifax, Nova Scotia (2001)
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Organizational Structures
1. Functional: functional managers report to the CEO
2. Project: program managers report to the CEO
3. Matrix: middle ground between functional and
project structures; personnel often report to two
or more bosses; structure can be weak, balanced,
or strong matrix

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Functional, Project, and Matrix
Organizational Structures

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Organizational Structure Influences
on Projects
Project Organizational Structure Type
Characteristics
Functional Matrix Project
Weak Matrix Balanced Strong
Matrix Matrix
Project manager’s Little or none Limited Low to Moderate High to
authority Moderate to high almost total
Percent of Virtually none 0-25% 15-60% 50-95% 85-100%
performing
organization’s
personnel assigned
full-time to project
work
Who controls the Functional Functional Mixed Project Project
project budget manager manager manager manager
Project manager’s Part-time Part-time Full-time Full-time Full-time
role
Common title for Project Project Project Project Project
project manager’s Coordinator/ Coordinator/ Manager/ Manager/ Manager/
role Project Leader Project Project Program Program
Leader Officer Manager Manager
Project management Part-time Part-time Part-time Full-time Full-time
administrative staff
PMBOK Guide, 2000, 19, and PMBOK Guide 2004, 28.

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Organizational Culture
• Organizational culture is a set of shared
assumptions, values, and behaviors that
characterize the functioning of an
organization
• Many experts believe the underlying causes
of many companies’ problems are not the
structure or staff, but the culture

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Ten Characteristics of Organizational
Culture
1. Member identity* 6. Risk tolerance*
2. Group emphasis* 7. Reward criteria*
3. People focus 8. Conflict tolerance*
4. Unit integration* 9. Means-ends orientation
5. Control 10. Open-systems focus*

*Project work is most successful in an organizational culture where

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Discussion
• Jelaskan bagaimana memahami organisasi dari
sudut pandang empat frame organisasi!
• Jelaskan tiga jenis struktur organisasi!
• Sebutkan sepuluh karakteristik dari kultur
organisasi!

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Stakeholder Management
• Project managers must take time to identify,
understand, and manage relationships with
all project stakeholders
• Using the four frames of organizations can
help meet stakeholder needs and
expectations
• Senior executives/top management are very
important stakeholders

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Media Snapshot
• The New York Times reported that the project to
rebuild Ground Zero in New York City is having
severe problems; imagine all of the stakeholders
involved in this huge, highly emotional project
• A 34-page report describes the many challenges
faced in the reconstruction of the former World
Trade Center site nearly seven years after the
terrorist attack of September 11, 2001
• The report identified the need for a steering to
make final decisions on important matters

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The Importance of Top Management
Commitment
• People in top management positions are key
stakeholders in projects
• A very important factor in helping project
managers successfully lead projects is the level of
commitment and support they receive from top
management
• Without top management commitment, many
projects will fail
• Some projects have a senior manager called a
champion who acts as a key proponent for a
project

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How Top Management Can Help
Project Managers
• Providing adequate resources
• Approving unique project needs in a timely
manner
• Getting cooperation from other parts of the
organization
• Mentoring and coaching on leadership issues

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Best Practice
• IT governance addresses the authority and control
for key IT activities in organizations, including IT
infrastructure, IT use, and project management
• A lack of IT governance can be dangerous, as
evidenced by three well-publicized IT project
failures in Australia (Sydney Water’s customer
relationship management system, the Royal
Melbourne Institute of Technology’s academic
management system, and One.Tel’s billing system)

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Need for Organizational Commitment
to Information Technology (IT)
• If the organization has a negative attitude toward
IT, it will be difficult for an IT project to succeed
• Having a Chief Information Officer (CIO) at a high
level in the organization helps IT projects
• Assigning non-IT people to IT projects also
encourages more commitment

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Need for Organizational Standards
• Standards and guidelines help project managers be
more effective
• Senior management can encourage:
• The use of standard forms and software for project
management
• The development and use of guidelines for writing
project plans or providing status information
• The creation of a project management office or center
of excellence

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Project Phases and the Project Life
Cycle
• A project life cycle is a collection of project phases
that defines:
• What work will be performed in each phase
• What deliverables will be produced and when
• Who is involved in each phase
• How management will control and approve work
produced in each phase
• A deliverable is a product or service produced or
provided as part of a project

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More on Project Phases
• In early phases of a project life cycle:
• Resource needs are usually lowest
• The level of uncertainty (risk) is highest
• Project stakeholders have the greatest opportunity to
influence the project
• In middle phases of a project life cycle:
• The certainty of completing a project improves
• More resources are needed
• The final phase of a project life cycle focuses on:
• Ensuring that project requirements were met
• The sponsor approves completion of the project

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Phases of the Traditional Project Life
Cycle

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Product Life Cycles
• Products also have life cycles
• The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a
framework for describing the phases involved in
developing and maintaining information systems
• Systems development projects can follow
• Predictive life cycle: the scope of the project can be
clearly articulated and the schedule and cost can be
predicted
• Adaptive Software Development (ASD) life cycle:
requirements cannot be clearly expressed, projects are
mission driven and component based, using time-based
cycles to meet target dates

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Predictive Life Cycle Models
• Waterfall model: has well-defined, linear stages of
systems development and support
• Spiral model: shows that software is developed using
an iterative or spiral approach rather than a linear
approach
• Incremental build model: provides for progressive
development of operational software
• Prototyping model: used for developing prototypes to
clarify user requirements
• Rapid Application Development (RAD) model: used to
produce systems quickly without sacrificing quality

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Waterfall Model

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Spiral Model

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Prototyping Model

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Agile Software Development
• Agile software development has become popular to
describe new approaches that focus on close
collaboration between programming teams and
business experts
• Visit www.agilealliance.org for information

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The Importance of Project Phases
and Management Reviews
• A project should successfully pass through
each of the project phases in order to
continue on to the next
• Management reviews, also called phase exits
or kill points, should occur after each phase
to evaluate the project’s progress, likely
success, and continued compatibility with
organizational goals

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What Went Right?
• The real improvement that I saw was in our ability to, in
the words of Thomas Edison, know when to stop
beating a dead horse. Edison's key to success was that
he failed fairly often, but as he said, he could recognize
a dead horse before it started to smell. In information
technology we ride dead horses, failing projects, a long
time before we give up. But what we are seeing now is
that we are able to get off them, able to reduce cost
overrun and time overrun. That's where the major
impact came on the success rate.
• Many organizations, like Huntington Bancshares, Inc.,
use an executive steering committee to help keep
projects on track.

Cabanis, Jeannette, "'A Major Impact': The Standish Group's Jim Johnson
On Project Management and IT Project Success," PM Network, PMI,
Sep.1998, p. 7
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The Context of IT Projects
• IT projects can be very diverse in terms of size,
complexity, products produced, application area,
and resource requirements
• IT project team members often have diverse
backgrounds and skill sets
• IT projects use diverse technologies that change
rapidly; even within one technology area, people
must be highly specialized

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Recent Trends Affecting IT Project
Management
• Globalization: lower trade and political barriers and
the digital revolution have made it possible to
interact almost instantaneously with billions of
other people across the planet
• Outsourcing: outsourcing is when an organization
acquires goods and/or sources from an outside
source; offshoring is sometimes used to describe
outsourcing from another country
• Virtual teams: a virtual team is a group of
individuals who work across time and space using
communication technologies

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Important Issues and Suggestions
Related to Globalization
• Issues
• Communications
• Trust
• Common work practices
• Tools
• Suggestions
• Employ greater project discipline
• Think global but act local
• Keep project momentum going
• Use newer tools and technology

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Outsourcing
• Organizations remain competitive by using
outsourcing to their advantage, such as finding
ways to reduce costs
• Their next challenge is to make strategic IT
investments with outsourcing by improving their
enterprise architecture to ensure that IT
infrastructure and business processes are
integrated and standardized
• Project managers should become more familiar
with negotiating contracts and other outsourcing
issues

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Virtual Teams Advantages
• Increasing competiveness and responsiveness by
having a team of workers available 24/7
• Lowering costs because many virtual workers do
not require office space or support beyond their
home offices
• Providing more expertise and flexibility by having
team members from across the globe working any
time of day or night
• Increasing the work/life balance for team members
by eliminating fixed office hours and the need to
travel to work

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Virtual Team Disadvantages
• Isolating team members
• Increasing the potential for communications
problems
• Reducing the ability for team members to network
and transfer information informally
• Increasing the dependence on technology to
accomplish work

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Discussion
• Jelaskan tiga trend yang mempengaruhi IT project
management!

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Summary
• Project managers need to take a systems approach
when working on projects
• Organizations have four different frames: structural,
human resources, political, and symbolic
• The structure and culture of an organization have
strong implications for project managers
• Projects should successfully pass through each phase of
the project life cycle
• Project managers need to consider several factors due
to the unique context of information technology
projects
• Recent trends affecting IT project management include
globalization, outsourcing, and virtual teams

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References
1. Kathy Schwalbe, Managing Information
Technology Projects 6th Edition, Course
Technology, Cengage Learning, 2010
2. A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge: PMBOK Guide 4th Edition, Project
Management Institute, 2008

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