Basic Elements of any

Nondestructive Test
Presented by
Shashank P Joshi
Associate Professor
B V M Engineering College
Nondestructive Testing of Metals
 Does not impair future usefulness of the
product
 Does not furnish the direct information
about properties like UTS, hardness…
 Detects the presence or absence of flaws
in a material
 Presence of flaws, if objectionable,
deteriorate performance

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Nondestructive Testing of Metals
 The performance is affected by
 Types of flaw
o Volumetric flaws like porosities, inclusions, holes &
voids, corrosion thinning
o Planar flaws like cracks, seams, laps
 Shape & size and orientation of flaws
 Location of the flaws (Surface or subsurface)
 Number of flaws

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Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)
 Information furnished by nondestructive
testing is used for performance evaluation.
 The term NDE has come to include all the
activities of nondestructive ‘testing’,
‘inspection’, ‘examination’; used to find,
locate, size, or determine something about
the object or flaws and allow the investigator
to decide whether or not the object or flaws
are acceptable.
 A flaw that has been evaluated as rejectable
is usually termed a defect.

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Attenuation
 Attenuation means attendant loss of
energy….
 Whenever the particular form of energy is
passing through the matter, that form of
energy interacts with the matter. Some of
the energy may scatter, reflect, get
absorbed and converted to heat and part
of the energy is transmitted.
 Attenuation depends on internal structure
of material and parameters of energy
form.
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Attenuation
 A flaw is a discontinuity in the structure.
 Attenuation at the discontinuity will be
different than that of surrounding.
 In most of the nondestructive testing
methods, the presence or absence of flaw
can be detected if the change in
attenuation is detected.

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Attenuation
 Ifin a given ndt method, the
scattering or reflection or
transmission of the energy form
can be captured/detected,
measured and analyzed; the
presence or absence of defect
can be determined.

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Basic Elements in any Nondestructive Test
1. Source: A source is one which provides
some probing medium, namely, a
medium that can be used to inspect the
item under test.
2. Modification: This probing medium must
change or be modified as a result of
variations or discontinuities within the
object being tested.

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Basic Elements in any Nondestructive Test
3. Detection: A detector capable of
determining the changes in probing
medium.
4. Indication: A means of indicating or
recording the signals from the detector.
5. Interpretation: A method of interpreting
these indications.

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Basic Elements: Source in Radiography
NDT
 Probing medium is electromagnetic
radiations; x-rays or γ-rays.
 Source in x-ray radiography is a x-ray
generator or machine
 γ-rays are emitted by radioisotopes like
Cobalt 60, Iridium 192, Cesium 137 and
Thulium 170.

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Probing medium is electromagnetic radiations

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X-ray Generator

Console Unit
Three control
parameters
Volt, Amp & Exposure
time 12
γ-ray Source and its Capsule

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Radiation Attenuation in the Specimen
 X-rays or γ-rays when pass through the
specimen get attenuated and reduced by
intensity.

I = I0Be-μt
 Modes of attenuation are : (i) Photoelectric effect
(ii) Rayleigh scattering (iii) Compton scattering
and (iv) pair production

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Radiation Attenuation in the Specimen
 The attenuation that results due to the
interaction between penetrating radiation and
matter is not a simple process.
 A single interaction event between a primary
x-ray photon and a particle of matter does not
usually result in the photon changing to some
other form of energy and effectively
disappearing.
 Several interaction events are usually involved
and the total attenuation is the sum of the
attenuation due to different types of interactions.
These interactions include the photoelectric
effect, scattering, and pair production.
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Modification in Radiography ndt
 At the defect, the
attenuation is
different than
surrounding.
 The intensity is
changed or
modified at the
defect.
 Difference in the
intensity
Differential attenuation enables difference in intensity to be created
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Detection in RT
 Detector is a radiographic film.
 What does it detect?
 I = I0Be-μt
 Intensity I, after attenuation through the
material thickness, t.
 And the modification - the difference in the
intensity.
 The difference in the intensity should be
sufficient to create the visible contrast on the
film.

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Detection in RT
 How?
 The intensity
received is recorded
on the photographic
film. When
radiations strikes the
chemically reactive
emulsion coated on
the film, a change
takes place in the
emulsion.
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Indication in RT
 Hence, the indication is a projected picture
or ‘shadowgraph’ developed on the film.

Base
metal

Weld
metal

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 Discontinuities in TIG welds
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and denser
material used in the electrode in GTAW. If improper
welding procedures are used, tungsten may be
entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten being
more dense than Al or steel, appears as a lighter area
with a distinct outline.

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Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of
material being welded (especially aluminum). Oxide
inclusions are less dense than the surrounding
materials and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly
shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.

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Interpretations from Indication on film
 Type of the flaw?
 Volumetric flaws like porosities, inclusions,
holes & voids, corrosion thinning can be likely
interpreted.
 Shape & size and orientation of flaws?
 Location of the flaws - Surface or subsurface?
Accuracy of location?
 Number of flaws?

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Interpretations from Indication
 Cold Shut appears
as areas with
distinct jagged
boundaries.
Problem occurring
during molten
metal filling of a
casting.

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Basic Elements: Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic
Nondestructive Testing
 Probing medium: Ultrasonic waves
 Range of frequency: 1 to 10 MHz
 Resultant acoustic wavelengths in the test
material: ~ 1 to 10 mm

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Source: Pulse Generator & probe
containing Piezoelectric Crystal

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Modification in Pulsed-Echo UST
 Wave velocity, V
 V= f λ
 Acoustic Impedance
Z=ρ V
 Transmission
 Z1 & Z2 are not
substantially
different
 Reflection
 Z1 & Z2 are
substantially
different
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Modification in Pulsed-Echo UST
 If there is a flaw in the path of
propagating ultrasonic waves, some of the
ultrasonic waves are reflected back.

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Detection in Pulsed Echo UST
 Detector is the ultrasonic probe. (T & R)
 It detects the sound waves which are
reflected from the backwall.
 It also detects the sound waves reflected
from the flaw.

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Attenuation of Sound Waves
 When the sound propagates through
material, the sound pressure is essentially
weakened by two physical processes;
scattering and absorption.
 Scattering results from inhomogeneities in
the material.(Even the coarser grain
compared to the wavelength.)
 Repeated reflections.

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Attenuation of Sound Waves
 Absorption is a direct conversion of sound
energy into heat, for which several
processes like internal friction, elastic and
magnetic hysteresis, heat conduction etc.
are responsible.
 Absorption usually increases with the
increase in frequency.

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Attenuation of Sound Waves

 A = A0e-αr
 A0 is incident amplitude
 A is the value of amplitude after
travelling distance r
 α is the attenuation coefficient

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Indication in Pulsed Echo UST

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Indication in Pulsed Echo UST

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Interpretations from Display on the
Screen for Pulsed Echo method
 Type of the flaw?
 Planar flaws like cracks, seams, laps are
detected and displayed.
 Volumetric flaws like porosities, slag
inclusions, are detected but will be seen as
‘grass’ – repeated reflections –scattering –
received at different times – low amplitude.
 Shape & size and orientation of flaws?
 Location of the flaws - Surface or subsurface?
Accuracy of location?
 Number of flaws?
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Through transmission works on the principle of absorption,
Detects the transmitted waves, not the reflected waves. 37
Basic Elements: Source in Magnetic
Particle Test
 Equipment which generates magnetic
field (probing medium), usually by
electromagnetic induction.

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Basic Elements: Modification in
Magnetic Particle Test
 Magnetic field is a probing medium.
 The applied magnetic field which is
permeating through the test piece, if
encounters a flaw, may develop a
magnetic field around the flaw, called a
leakage field.

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Basic Elements: Detection in Magnetic
Particle Test
 The leakage field is detected by iron
powder.
 The iron powder can be applied only at the
surface.
 For a subsurface defect, the leakage field will
permeate through the material and will become
feeble – unable to attract iron powder.
 If it is expected to detect the flaws open to
surface or just below the surface use AC or
HWAC.
 For subsurface flaws, DC or HWDC is used.
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Basic Elements: Indication in Magnetic
Particle Test
 The presence of a discontinuity is
shown by the formation and
adherence of a particle pattern
on the surface of the workpiece
over the discontinuity.
 This pattern is called an
‘indication’.
 Indication assumes the
approximate shape of the surface
projection of discontinuity.
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Interpretations from Indication in MPI
 Type of the flaw?
 Volumetric flaws ?
 Planar flaws?
 Shape & size and orientation of flaws?
 Location of the flaws - Surface or subsurface?
Accuracy of location?
 Number of flaws?

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 Interpretations:

A technician performs MPI on

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PRINCIPLE OF EDDY CURRENT
INSPECTION
 Eddy current coil generates primary magnetic field
(Ampere's law)
 Primary magnetic field induces eddy currents in the
material (Faraday's law)
 Eddy current arise from changes in electromagnetic
field, causing a local electric current to flow in a
circular path in an electrically conducting material.
 Eddy currents generate secondary magnetic field in
the opposite direction (Lenz's law)
 Coil impedance changes, as a result
 Impedance change is measured, analyzed and
correlated with defect dimensions
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 Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material 46
Basic Elements of ndt in ECT
 Source: Oscillator – generates alternating
current with range of frequencies
(1MHz – 2 MHz)
 Probing Medium: Eddy currents
 Modification: Eddy currents are
interrupted at discontinuity
 Detection: Impedance change
 Indication: Impedance change is
converted to a ‘pattern’ on CRO
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Indication in ECT

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Indication in ECT

Display is
indicated
on CRO

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Interpretations from Display on the
Screen for Conventional ECT
 Type of the flaw?
 Planar flaws like cracks, seams, laps are
detected and displayed.
 Volumetric flaws like porosities, slag
inclusions, are detected but will be seen as
‘grass’ – repeated reflections –scattering –
received at different times – low amplitude.
 Shape & size and orientation of flaws?
 Location of the flaws - Surface or subsurface?
Accuracy of location?
 Number of flaws?
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Identify the basic elements of ndt in
LPT

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Basic Elements of ndt in RT
 Probing medium: Electromagnetic
radiations
 Source: x-ray generator or γ-ray sources
 Modification: Difference in intensity
 Detector: Radiographic film
 Indication: Shadowgraph – projected
image with different contrast
 Interpretation: Volumnar defects, Size,
shape, nos.
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Basic Elements of ndt in Pulsed Echo
UST
 Probing medium: Ultrasonic waves
 Source: Pulse generator and probe
 Modification: Reflection of ultrasound waves
due to change of acoustic impedance
 Detector: Probe
 Indication: Time of signals converted to
distance – Signals received at different times
 Interpretation: Planar defects, accurate
location, nos

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Basic Elements of ndt in MPI
 Probing medium: Magnetic field
 Source: AC/DC high current machine to
produce magnetic field by electromagnetic
induction
 Modification: Leakage field
 Detector: Iron powder
 Indication: Pattern formed at surface
 Interpretation: Cracks, location,
approximate shape and size.
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Basic Elements of ndt in ECT
 Probing medium: Eddy currents
 Source: High frequency AC current
generator
 Modification: Interruption in eddy current
path changes secondary magnetic field
 Detector: Coil, change in impedance
 Indication: Pattern on CRO
 Interpretation: Comparison (for
conventional ECT)
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References
1. Avner, Sidney H: Introduction to Physical
Metallurgy, 2nd Edition, Tata-McGraw Hill
2. Baldev Raj, T. Jayakumar and M.
Thavasimuthu: Practical Non-Destructive
Testing, Narosa Pub. House
 Thanks
Questions?