* Internal

Combustion Engine
 *I.C. Engines (ME-404)
Course Contents
*Classification
Configuration and working principles of IC Engines.
*Analysis of Intake and Exhaust
Measurement of fuel and air consumption, volumetric
efficiency, super-charging, effect of air-fuel ratio and
compression ratio on engine power & efficiency,
pumping work, effect of residual gases on intake
temperature, injection of fuel, carburetors/fuel
injector, ignition system development, exhaust gas
analysis and air pollution, control of exhaust gas
contents, energy emissions.
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 * Course Contents

 Fuels and Combustion.

Gasoline characteristics, alcohol refining and octane &
cetane rating, diesel fuel oil classification, gas turbine & jet
fuel, additives, combustion equation, CNG. Theoretical flame
temperature, reaction rate and flame propagation, methods
of igniting fuel, ;auto ignition, knock , combustion theories,
ignition delay, chemical equilibrium and dissociation, energy
charts for unburned air mixtures, combustion chamber
requirement.
 Lubricants
Engine lubrication systems, additives for lubricants.

3
 * Course Contents
 Engine Characteristics.
Valve timing, torque & mean effective pressure, comparison
of real cycles with the ideal cycle, indicated power, brake
power, specific fuel consumption, heat balance sheet,
relation between indicated thermal efficiency and load, SI &
Cl engines comparison, speed and load control in SI & Cl
engine, high output engines, turbocharged engines.

Recommended Books
 Internal Combustion Engine fundamentals by J.B.Heywood
 Internal Combustion Engines by C.R Fergusun
 Introduction to I. C. Engines by Richard Stone
 Internal Combustion Engines by O.F. Obert

4
*INTRODUCTION

5
What is an engine?
- A machine which converts chemical energy
into mechanical energy

Types of engines:
*External combustion engine. *Internal combustion engine.
-Ex: steam engine -Ex: car engine

Figure source:http://www.tpub.com/machines/12.htm
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A heat engine in which the heat source is a
combustible mixture that also serves as the
working fluid

The working fluid in turn is used either to

 Produce shaft work by pushing on a piston or
turbine blade that in turn drives a rotating shaft or
 Creates a high-momentum fluid that is used
directly for propulsive force

*Internal Combustion
(I.C) Engine
7
 Examples of IC Engines
 Gasoline-fueled reciprocating piston engine
 Diesel-fueled reciprocating piston engine
 Gas turbine
 Rocket engines

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 Internal combustion engines

• Reciprocating engine
- 4 stroke engine
- 2 stroke engine

• Rotary engine
- Wankel engine
- Turbine engine

• Reaction engine
- Rocket engine

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10
*Isentropic Process (1-2)
Fresh air at ambient temperature is drawn into the
compressor, where it is pressurized.
*Isobaric Process (2-3)
The compressed air then passes through a combustion
chamber, where fuel is burned, heating that air—a
constant-pressure process, since the chamber is open to
flow in and out.
*Isentropic Process (3-4)
The heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy,
expanding through a turbine (or series of turbines).
Some of the work extracted by the turbine is used to
drive the compressor.
*Isobaric Process (4-1)
Heat Rejection (in the atmosphere).
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12
Reciprocating Engine
Internal combustion
piston engine

Components of a typical,
four stroke cycle,
internal combustion
piston engine.

E - Exhaust camshaft
I - Intake camshaft
S - Spark plug
V - Valves
P - Piston
R - Connecting rod
C - Crankshaft
W - Water jacket for
coolant flow

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Steady Non-steady

Gas Turbine Premixed-charge

Uses compressor and turbine, Fuel and air are mixed before/during compression
not piston-cylinder Usually ignited with spark after compression

Turboshaft Two-stroke
All shaft work to drive propeller, One complete thermodynamic cycle
generator, rotor (helicopter) per revolution of engine

Turbofan Four-stroke
Part shaft, part jet - One complete thermodynamic cycle
"ducted propeller" per two revolutions of engine

Turbojet Non-premixed charge

All jet except for work needed to Only air is compressed,
drive compressor fuel is injected into cylinder after compression

Ramjet
No compressor or turbine Two-stroke
Use high Mach no. ram effect for compression One complete thermodynamic cycle
per revolution of engine
Rocket
Carries both fuel and oxidant Four-stroke
Jet power only, no shaft work One complete thermodynamic cycle
per two revolutions of engine

Solid fuel
Fuel and oxidant are premixed
and put inside combustion chamber

Liquid fuel
Fuel and oxidant are initially separated
and pumped into combustion chamber 14
 * CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES
Internal combustion engines can be classified on the
following basis.
(a) Based on number of strokes:
Number of strokes involved in a cycle of IC engine can
be two strokes or four strokes. Such engine can be;
(i) Two stroke engines (ii) Four stroke engines
(b) Based on thermodynamic cycle:
Depending upon thermodynamic cycle used in the
internal combustion engines these can be classified as:
(i) Engines based on Otto cycle (Spark-Ignition engine)
(ii) Engines based on Diesel or Dual cycle
(Compression-Ignition engines)

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(c) Based on mechanism of ignition:
Internal combustion engines have combustion as the basic
process. Combustion process may be initiated using
externally assisted ignition (spark ignition) or it may get
initiated on its own due to excessive compression
(compression ignition). Such engines are called:
(i) Spark ignition engines
(ii) Compression ignition engines
The spark ignition engines may have "magneto ignition
system" or "battery ignition system" for creating necessary
electric potential for producing spark.

(d) Based on type of fuel used:

IC engines may be classified depending upon the type of
fuel being used. These can be:

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(i) Petrol engines (petrol being used as fuel) (ii) Gas engines
(gaseous fuel being used) (iii) Diesel engines (diesel. being used
as fuel) (iv) Multi-fuel engines (more than one fuel being used)

(e) Based on fuel admission:

IC engines can be of different types depending upon arrangement
used for fuel admission:
(i) Carburettor type engines (Use carburetor fuel metering)
(ii) Injection type engines (use fuel injector and injection system)

(f) Based on on type of cooling:

IC engines have inherent requirement of continuous cooling of
engine. Based on type of cooling these can be classified as:
(i) Air cooled engines (Generally used in small sized engines)
(ii) Water cooled engines (Generally used in large sized engines)

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(g) Based on type of motion:
IC engines may have reciprocating motion of piston or it
may also have rotary motion. Such engines can be:
(i) Reciprocating engines
(ii) Rotary engines.
Reciprocating engines may have different cylinder
arrangements such as:
(i) Opposed cylinder engines
(ii) Inclined cylinder engines
(iii) V-shaped cylinder arrangement.

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Rotary engines may be further classified as
(i) Single rotor engine
(ii) Multi rotor engine.

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 * ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
Some of the basic components and generally used terms
in internal combustion engines are given as under.
1. Cylinder: It is a cylindrical block having cylindrical
space inside for piston to make reciprocating motion.
Upper portion of cylinder which covers it from the top is
called cylinder head. This is manufactured by casting.
Process and materials used are cast iron or alloy steel.
2. Piston and Piston rings: Piston is a cylindrical part
which reciprocates inside the cylinder and is used for
doing work and getting work. Piston has piston rings
tightly fitted in groove around piston and provides a
tight seal so as to prevent leakage across piston and
cylinder wall during piston's reciprocating motion.
Pistons are manufactured by casting or forging process.
Pistons are made of cast iron, alluminum alloy. Piston
rings are made of silicon, cast iron, steel alloy by
casting process.

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3. Combustion space: It is the space available between
the cylinder head and top of piston when piston is at
farthest position from crankshaft (TDC).
4. Intake manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting
intake system to the inlet valve upon cylinder. Through
intake manifold the air/air-fuel mixture goes into
cylinder.
5. Exhaust manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting
exhaust system to the exhaust valve upon cylinder.
Through exhaust manifold burnt gases go out of cylinder.
6. Valves: Engine has both intake and exhaust type of
valves which are operated by valve operating
mechanism comprising of cam, camshaft, follower, valve
rod, rocker arm, valve spring etc. Valves are generally
of spring loaded type and made out of special alloy
steels by forging process.

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7. Spark plug: It is the external ignitor used for initiating
combustion process. Spark plug is activated by electrical
energy fed by electrical system with engine. It delivers
spark with suitable energy to initiate combustion at
appropriate time for suitable duration.
8. Bearing: Bearings are required to support crank shaft.
Bearings are made of white metal leaded bronze.
9. Connecting rod: It is the member connecting piston
and crankshaft. It has generally I section and is made of
steel by forging process.
10. Crankshaft: It is the shaft at which useful positive
work is available from the piston-cylinder arrangement.
Reciprocating motion of piston gets converted into
rotary motion of crankshaft. Crankshaft are
manufactured by forging process from alloy steel.

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11. Crankcase: Crankcase actually acts like a sump housing
crank, crankshaft, connecting rod and is attached to
cylinder. These are made of alluminium alloy, steel,
cast iron etc. by casting process.
12. Gudgeon pin: It is the pin joining small end of the
connecting rod and piston. This is made of steel by
forging process.
13. Cams and Camshafts: Cams are mounted upon
camshaft for opening and closing the valves at right
timings and for correct durations. Camshaft gets motion
from crankshaft through timing gears.
14. Carburettor: Carburettor is device to prepare the air
fuel mixture in
right proportion and supply at right time.
15. Bore: It is nominal inner diameter of the cylinder.
16. Piston area: It is the area of a circle of diameter equal
to bore.
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17. Stroke: It is the nominal distance traveled by the
piston between two extreme positions in the cylinder.
18. Dead centre: It refers to the extreme end positions
inside the cylinder at which piston reverses it's motion.
Thus there are two dead centres in cylinder, called as
'top dead centre' or 'inner dead centre' and 'bottom dead
centre' or 'outer dead centre'.
Top dead centre (TDC) is the farthest position of piston from
crankshaft. It is also called inner dead centre (IDC).

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*Working of 4-Stroke SI Engine
4-Stroke Engine complete one cycle in
4-strokes of piston and
two revolution of crank shaft.

1st Stroke– Intake or Suction Stroke:

On the intake or induction stroke of the piston , the
piston descends from the top of the cylinder to the
bottom of the cylinder, reducing the pressure inside
the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by
atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder
through the intake port. The intake valve(s) then
close.
2nd Stroke—Compression Stroke:
With both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston
returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the fuel-
air mixture. This is known as the compression stroke.
3rd Stroke----Expansion or Power Stroke:
While the piston is at or close to Top Dead Center, the
compressed air–fuel mixture is ignited, usually by a
spark plug (for a gasoline or Otto cycle engine) or by the
heat and pressure of compression (for a diesel cycle or
compression ignition engine). The resulting massive
pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-
air mixture drives the piston back down toward bottom
dead center with tremendous force. This is known as the
power stroke. which is the main source of the engine's
torque and power.
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*4-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
4th stroke—Exhaust Stroke
During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to
top dead center while the exhaust valve is open. This action
evacuates the products of combustion from the cylinder by
pushing the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust
valve(s).

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29
*
 *

Valves closed
 *

Valves closed
*
34
 Valve Timing Diagram

The four-stroke cycle

1=TDC
2=BDC
A: Intake
B: Compression
C: Power
D: Exhaust
 *Working of 2-stroke SI Engine
2-stroke SI engine is a modified form of 4-stroke engine
where all the four processes required for completion of
one cycle of SI engine get completed in two strokes.

In each stroke two processes get completed.

There are no valves as in case of 4-stroke engines,
instead, it has exhaust and suction ports.

Piston has a projection on its top, which acts like

deflector.

Mixture of air-fuel goes into

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crank case first and then
gets transferred to top of piston at appropriate time.
37
 Piston movement
BDC to TDC (Intake + Compression)
*Suction port gets uncovered and fresh mixture of air and
fuel enters and goes into crank case.

*On top of piston the mixture gets compressed and

subsequently gets ignited by spark from spark plug.

TDC to BDC (Power + Exhaust)

*The combustion of fuel-air mixture results in release of

excessive energy which forces piston to move from TDC
to BDC.
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* Simultaneously as piston uncovers exhaust port the burnt
gases go out through exhaust port.

* During covered position of suction port the mixture gets

transferred to the top of piston through transfer port.
Suction and compression, both processes get completed
during travel of piston from BDC to TDC.
Expansion and exhaust processes occur during
travel of piston from TDC to BDC along with transfer of
fresh fuel-air mixture from crankcase to top of piston.

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40
. Suction and compression, both processes
get completed during travel of piston from BDC to TDC.
Expansion and exhaust processes occur during
travel of piston from TDC to BDC along with transfer of
fresh fuel-air mixture from crankcase to top of piston.

*All four processes occur during two strokes and one

revolution of crank shaft.

*Thermodynamic cycle followed by 2-stroke SI engine is

also Otto cycle.

*Scooter engines are generally two stroke engines. 2-

stroke SI engines are used
41 for smaller output
2-stroke SI Engine
TDC

BDC

42
*

43
Scavenging
Uniflow scavenging
In automotive usage, scavenging is the
process of pushing exhausted gas-charge
out of the cylinder and drawing in a fresh
draught of air or fuel/air mixture for the
next cycle.
This process is essential in having a
smooth-running internal combustion
engine. If scavenging is incomplete, the
following stroke will begin with a mix of
exhaust fumes rather than clean air.
Scavenging is equally important for both
two- and four-stroke engines. However it is
more difficult to achieve in two-stroke
engines, owing to the proximity, or even
overlap, of their induction and exhaust
strokes.
A deflector is provided on the top of
‘crankcase scavenged two-stroke’ piston
for better scavenging.
Two-Stroke
 Applications
Two stroke engines are found on:
 Weed trimmers
 Snowmobiles
 Older dirt bikes
 Chainsaws
 Nitro R/C Cars
 Small outboards
 Advantages
Less parts = Lighter
Fires once every revolution = 2x power of
four stroke
Cheaper, less complex and easier to work
on
Can work in any orientation (upside down,
sideways)
 Disadvantages
No dedicated lubrication system (not as
durable)
Not fuel efficient and require expensive oil
to be mixed with gas (one gallon oil/1,000
miles)
Produce a lot of pollution due to burning of
gas and oil.
 *Compression Ignition (C.I)
Engines
Invented in the 1890’s in Germany by Rudolf Diesel

50
* How it
Works

51
• Compression ignition (CI) engines operate
generally on Diesel/Dual combustion cycle.

• Inthese engines the combustion is realized due

to excessive compression and called
compression ignition engines.

*Self ignition of fuel takes place due to

temperature
of air-fuel mixture being higher than self ignition
temperature of fuel.
52
*Thus in CI engines, larger amount of
compression
causes high temperature, therefore unassisted
combustion.
• Schematic of 4-stroke CI engine is quite similar
to that of 4-stroke SI engine with the only major
difference that spark plug is replaced by fuel
injector for injecting fuel at high pressure into
compressed air.

53
 How it Works (cont’d):

Intake- The intake valve opens up, letting in air only.

Compression-The piston moves back up and compresses the air.

Combustion -As the piston reaches the top, fuel is injected at just the right
moment and ignited by heat from compression, forcing the piston back
down.

Exhaust-The piston moves back to the top, pushing out the exhaust
created from the combustion out of the exhaust valve.
 Gas vs. Diesel Engines
No Carburetor or port injection in Diesels
Uses direct injection into cylinder
No spark plugs
Much more compression than gasoline
engine (approx 2-3 times more)
Highest thermal efficiency of all engine
types
 Important Notes:
Compression heats air to approx 1000
degrees F.
Air intake is constant unless a turbo is
used
Only fuel is added when throttle is applied
Fuel is added as a mist into cylinder
abrupt increase in pressure above the
piston causes knocking sound
 Advantages:
Due to high compression and expansion
ratio, diesels are 45% efficient compared
to gasoline at 30%

No high voltage electrical system needed

Diesel engines usually last 2x longer than

gasoline due to stronger parts and better
lubrication
 Advantages (cont’d):
Diesel fuel is safer than gasoline (not
explosive)
Much more torque than gas due to longer
piston stroke (large diameter crankshaft
needed)
More potential for power due to adding of
turbo or sometimes supercharger
 Disadvantages:
Louder engine due to large amount of
rapidly expanding gas
Higher initial cost
Lower performance overall compared to
gas in regular driving
Problematic in cold weather
Low sulfur fuel now used but exhaust can
still smell and smoke
 Uses:
90% of transportation industry
Power generators
Large boats/ships
Locomotives
Construction machinery
Cars and trucks
Largest diesel engine
109,000 hp @102rpm
Rotory
Engines

61
 *Rotory Engine
* A rotary engine is an internal combustion engine but it works
in a completely different way than the conventional piston
engine.
* In a piston engine, the same volume of space (the cylinder)
alternately does four different jobs -- intake, compression,
combustion and exhaust.
*A rotary engine does these same four jobs, but each one
happens in its own part of the housing.
* It'skind of like having a dedicated cylinder for each of the
four jobs, with the piston moving continually from one to the
next.

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 *Wankel engine
The rotary engine (originally conceived and developed by Dr.
Felix Wankel) is sometimes called a Wankel engine, or
Wankel rotary engine.

63
* Likea piston engine, the rotary engine uses the pressure
created when a combination of air and fuel is burned.
* In a piston engine, that pressure is contained in the cylinders
and forces pistons to move back and forth. The connecting
rods and crankshaft convert the reciprocating motion of the
pistons into rotational motion that can be used to power a
car.
* In a rotary engine, the pressure of combustion is contained in
a chamber formed by part of the housing and sealed in by one
face of the triangular rotor, which is what the engine uses
instead of pistons.

64
 *Rotor
65
* The rotor follows a path that looks like something you'd
create with a Spirograph.
* Thispath keeps each of the three peaks of the rotor in
contact with the housing, creating three separate volumes of
gas.
* Asthe rotor moves around the chamber, each of the three
volumes of gas alternately expands and contracts. It is
expansion and contraction that draws air and fuel into the
engine, compresses it and makes useful power as the gases
expand, and then expels the exhaust.

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*
* Intake:
* Compression:
* Power:
* Exhaust:

*
*Intake:
A

B
 *Compression:

A
 *Power:
B

A
*Exhaust:

B
 * Largest internal combustion engine
* Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged two-stroke diesel, built in Japan,
used in container ships
* 14 cylinder version: weight 2300 tons; length 89 feet; height 44 feet; max.
power 108,920 hp @ 102 rpm; max. torque 5,608,312 ft lb @ 102 RPM

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 Introduction
• Invented in 1930 by Frank Whittle
• Patented in 1934
• First used for aircraft propulsion in 1942 on Me262 by
Germans during second world war
• Currently most of the aircrafts and ships use GT engines
• Used for power generation
• Manufacturers: General Electric, Pratt &Whitney,
SNECMA, Rolls Royce, Honeywell, Siemens –
Westinghouse, Alstom
 Closed Cycle Gas turbine
In this , cycle is closed
and exhaust is not open
to atmosphere.

Inthis there is
continuously supply of
same working gas.

Higher density gases like

hydrogen or carbon
dioxide is used.

So we get higher

efficiency then open cycle
GT.
 Open Cycle Gas turbine
Freshair is drawn into the
compressor from
atmosphere.

Heatis added by
combustion of fuel.

Exhaust from turbine is

released in atmosphere.

Arrangement of
continuous replacement of
working medium is
required.
1. Compressor

2. Combuster

3. Turbine
 1. Compressor

The compressor sucks the air

from the atmosphere and
compresses it and guides it to
the combustion chamber.
 2. Combuster

Thisis an annular chamber where the fuel burns

and is similar to the furnace in a boiler. The air
from the compressor is the Combustion air.
 3. Turbine

Stationaryguide vanes of turbine

direct the gases to the next set of
blades. The kinetic energy of the
hot gases impacting on the blades
rotates the blades and the shaft.
 Gas turbine functions in the same way as the
Compressed Ignition Engine. It sucks in air
from the atmosphere, compresses it.

 The fuel is injected and ignited. The gases

expand doing work and finally exhausts
outside.

 The only difference is instead of the

reciprocating motion, gas turbine uses a
rotary motion throughout.
EXHAUST
GAS
Brayton Cycle:
The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines
The Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Brayton for
use in the reciprocating oil-burning engine that he developed
around 1870.
Fresh air at ambient conditions is
drawn into the compressor, where
its temperature and pressure are
raised. The high-pressure air
proceeds into the combustion
chamber, where the fuel is burned
at constant pressure. The resulting
high-temperature gases then enter
the turbine, where they expand to
the atmospheric pressure, thus
producing power. (An open cycle.)

85
Brayton Cycle (continued)
The open gas-turbine cycle can be modeled as a closed
cycle, as shown in the figure below, by utilizing the air-
standard assumptions.
The ideal cycle that the working fluid
undergoes in this closed loop is the
Brayton cycle, which is made up of
four internally reversible processes:
12 Isentropic compression (in a
compressor)
23 Constant pressure heat addition
34 Isentropic expansion (in a
turbine)
41 Constant pressure heat rejection

86
Process 1-2:
Isentropic compression in the compressor
Process 2-3:
Addition of heat at constant pressure
Process 3-4:
Isentropic expansion of air
Process 4-1:
Rejection of heat at constant pressure
 Applications
Applications
Generation of electric
power

Railway engines

Military vehicles

Turbojet engines

 Supercharging

Industry
 Gas turbine power station
 A Gas-turbine power station uses gas turbines as
prime mover for generating electrical energy.

 This power station is generally used in conjunction

with Steam Power station (combined cycle).
 A gas turbine - electric locomotive, or GTEL, is a locomotive
that uses a gas turbine to drive an electric generator or
alternator. The electric current thus produced is used to
power traction motors. This type of locomotive was first
experimented during the Second World War, but reached its
peak in the 1950s to 1960s.
 Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating
engines.

 Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power

rating.

 Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines

 Low operating pressures & High operation speeds.

 Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.

 Moves in one direction only, with fewer moving parts

 Higher Cost.

 Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle.

 Longer startup than reciprocating engines.

 Less responsive to changes in power demand

compared to reciprocating engines.

 More complex machining operations

 Engine
Performance
Parameters

95
*Engine Performance Parameters

96
97
98
99
100
101
* Will be a specific indicated mean
effective pressure, imep, and a
corresponding brake mean effective
pressure, bmep.
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
Solved Examples

110
Square Engine
An engine is described as a square engine when it has equal
bore and stroke dimensions, giving a bore/stroke value of
exactly 1:1.
For example an engine which has 95 millimetres (3.74 in)
bore, and an identical 95 millimetres (3.74 in) stroke, has a
bore/stroke value of:
95 mm / 95 mm = 1.00 Usually engines that have a
bore/stroke ratio of 0.95 to 1.04 are referred as square
engines

111
Oversquare, or short-stroke engine
An engine is described as oversquare or short-stroke if its
cylinders have a greater bore diameter than its stroke length
- giving a ratio value of greater than 1:1.
For example an engine which has 100 millimetres (3.94 in)
bore, and 80 millimetres (3.15 in) stroke has a bore/stroke
value of: 100 mm / 80 mm = 1.25:1 An oversquare engine
allows for more and larger valves in the head of the cylinder,
lower friction losses (due to the reduced distance travelled
during each engine rotation) and lower crank stress (due to
the lower peak piston speed relative to engine speed).
Because these characteristics favor higher engine speeds,
oversquare

112
engines are often tuned to develop peak torque at a
relatively high speed.
The reduced stroke length allows for a shorter cylinder and
sometimes a shorter connecting rod, generally making
oversquare engines less tall than undersquare engines of
similar engine displacement but wider and longer (for engines
with vertical cylinder axes).
By changing the crankshaft and modifying the connecting
rod(s), piston(s) and/or engine block it reduces the
displacement and consequently the torque of the engine, but
can allow it to run at higher speeds and in fact develop
greater peak power.

113
Undersquare, or long-stroke engine
An engine is described as undersquare or long-stroke if its
cylinders have a smaller bore (width, diameter) than its
stroke (length of piston travel) - giving a ratio value of less
than 1:1.
For example an engine which has 90 millimetres (3.54 in)
bore, and 120 millimetres (4.72 in) stroke has a bore/stroke
value of: 90 mm / 120 mm = 0.75:1
At a given engine speed, a longer stroke increases engine
friction (since the piston travels a greater distance per
stroke) and increases stress on the crankshaft (due to the
higher peak piston speed).

114
The smaller bore also reduces the area available for valves in
the cylinder head, requiring them to be smaller or fewer in
number. Because these factors favor lower engine speeds,
undersquare engines are most often tuned to develop peak
torque at relatively low speeds.

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