BMFS 2623

Advanced Manufacturing Process

Lectures for Week 5
Associate Prof. Ir. Ts. Dr. Mohd Shukor
Salleh

Department of Process Engineering

Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering
 Electron Beam Machining
• Electron beam is generated in an electron beam gun.
• Electron beam gun provides high velocity electrons over a
very small spot size.
• Electron Beam Machining is required to be carried out in
vacuum. Otherwise the electrons would interact with the
air molecules thus they would loose their energy and
cutting ability.
• The high-energy focused electron beam is made to impinge
on the workpiece with a spot size of 10 – 100 μm.
• The kinetic energy of the high velocity electrons is
converted to heat energy as the electrons strike the work
material.
 Electron Beam Machining
• The basic functions of any electron beam gun are to generate free electrons at the cathode,
accelerate them to a sufficiently high velocity and to focus them over a small spot size.
• The cathode is generally made of tungsten or tantalum.
• Such heating leads to thermo-ionic emission of electrons, which is further enhanced by
maintaining very low vacuum within the chamber of the electron beam gun. This cathode is
often in the form of a cartridge so that it can be changed very quickly to reduce down time in
case of failure.
• After the cathode, there is an annular bias grid. A high negative bias is applied to this grid so
that the electrons generated by this cathode do not diverge and approach the next element,
the annular anode, in the form of a beam.
• The annular anode now attracts the electron beam and gradually gets accelerated. As they
leave the anode section, the electrons may achieve a velocity as high as half the velocity of
light. After the anode, the electron beam passes through a series of magnetic lenses and
apertures. The magnetic lenses shape the beam and try to reduce the divergence.
• Apertures on the other hand allow only the convergent electrons to pass and capture the
divergent low energy electrons from the fringes. This way, the aperture and the magnetic
lenses improve the quality of the electron beam.
• Then the electron beam passes through the final section of the electromagnetic lens and
deflection coil. The electromagnetic lens focuses the electron beam to a desired spot. The
deflection coil can manoeuvre the electron beam, though by small amount, to improve shape
of the machined holes.
Electron Beam Machining
 Process Parameters of EBM
The process parameters, which directly affect the machining
characteristics in Electron Beam Machining are:

• Accelerating voltage
• Beam current
• Pulse duration
• Energy per pulse
• Power per pulse
• Lens current
• Spot size
• Power density
 Electron Beam Process Capabilities
• EBM can provide holes of diameter in the range
of 100 μm to 2 mm with a depth up to 15 mm, as
example with a l/d ratio of around 10. The hole
can be tapered along the depth or barrel shaped.
• By focusing the beam below the surface a reverse
taper can also be obtained.
• Generally burr formation does not occur in EBM.
• A wide range of materials such as steel, stainless
steel, Ti and Ni superalloys, aluminium as well as
plastics, ceramics, leathers can be machined
successfully using electron beam.
Surface Finish, Heat Affected Zone and
Tolerance of EBM.
There are some characteristic and consideration aspect of EBM in surface finish, heat affected zone and tolerance:

 Cutting edge quality is depending on the type of materials.

 Local pitting commonly happened, the amount is influenced by the thermal properties
of the work piece, the pulse energy or pulse charge. The surface finish is worsening if
pulse charge in increased.
 The machined surface layer is affected by high temperature .
 The thickness of affected layer increases with the increase of pulse period and hole
diameter.
 Common value for tolerance is ± 0.005 mm – EBM is a precision cutting technique.
 In drilling, tolerance of ± 5% of the beam diameter is possible.
 For drilling a same hole size, hole tolerance will increase if the thickness of work piece is
increased (eg. for a hole size of 0.5 mm, if work piece thickness of 0.3 mm, hole
tolerance is 4%, 0.5 mm thick (5%), 1.0 mm (7%) and 4.0 mm (9%). For any work piece
material, tolerance is also increased if the hole drilled size is increased.
 Material Removal Rate
. p
v
w
where, p = power (in watts)
w = specific energy for metal vaporization (in Joule/cm3)
 = cutting efficiency
 
w  4.2  C Tm  20  C Tb  Tm   H f  H v 
where,  = density (in g/cm3)
C = specific heat (in cal/g/oC)
Tm = melting temperature (in oC)
Tb = boiling temperature (in oC)
Hf = fluidized heat (in cal/g)
Hv = vaporized heat (in cal/g)
 APPLICATION of EBM
• Drilling of small holes
• Cutting
Other Electron Beam Applications
• Annealing
• Welding
 ADVANTAGES of EBM
• Able to cut small hole diameter (as small as 0.05 mm
diameter) and small slot.
• Able to drill hole with large ratio depth: diameter (200:1) –
suitable for micro drilling.
• Able to machine metal or non-metal.
• Tolerance is very good because electron beam is small in
size.
• Energy can be precisely controlled (warping problem on
thin plate/foil can be prevented.
• Cutting speed per hole is very high (average 1 sec/hole)
• No physical and metallurgical defect (heat affected zone is
thin)
 LIMITATION of EBM
• The tool cost is higher.
• Requires highly skilled operators .
• Only economical for small production.
• Cutting have to be performed in vacuum
(preparation time is high, parts size need to be
sufficient, limited work size).
• Require protection against x-ray (the impact of high
velocity electron produces x-ray).
• Limited work material thickness (0.25 – 6.35 mm).
• The drilled hole has slight taper and crater at the
top.
PLASMA ARC MACHINING
(PAM)
 Introduction
• In plasma-arc welding (PAW), developed in the
1960s, a concentrated plasma arc is produced and
directed towards the weld area.
• Deep and narrow welds can be made by this process
at high welding speeds.
• The high heat concentration can penetrate
completely through the joint (keyhole technique)
with thicknesses as much as 20 mm for some
titanium and aluminum alloys.
 Introduction
In the transferred-arc In the non transferred
method, the workpiece method, the arc occurs
being welded is part of between the electrode
the electrical circuit. The and the nozzle and heat
arch transferred from the is carried to the
electrode to the workpiece by the plasma
workpiece hence the term gas. This thermal
transferred is used. transfer mechanism is
similar to that for an
oxyfuel flme.

Figure above shows the two types of plasma-arc welding

processes: (a) transferred and (b) non-transferred.
Equipment of PAM

Figure above shows the equipment of PAM

 Principle of PAM
• An inert gas is blown at high speed
out of a nozzle.
• At same time an electrical arc is
formed through that gas from the
nozzle to the surface being cut,
turning some of that gas to plasma.
• The height concentration of energy
in a limited space, the material of
the workpiece is wormed till the
melting of a layer.
• Afterwards, the melted material is
blown out by plasma jet ejection.
 Plasma Arc Cutting Technical
Considerations
• Material Type
• Material Thickness and Cutting Speed
• Cut Quality
• Cutting Specifications
• Cutting Gases
• Power Supply
a) Material Type
• Carbon steels, aluminium, and stainless steels are
most commonly cut with plasma arc. Many other
metals may be cut with plasma including nickel
alloys, brass, bronze, tungsten, copper, cast iron,
titanium, and zirconium.
b) Material Thicknesses and Cutting Speeds
• Workpiece thickness is one of the considerations
whether plasmas cutting speeds will be cost effective
on their application or not. However, the maximum
cutting speed depends not only on thickness but also
on power supply and material type.
c) Cut Quality
• Cut quality is affected by type of metal and cutting speed. Process variables, such
as cutting gas, power, and cutting speed are adjusted to provide the optimum cut
for each metal type.
• Although the size of the power supply is also a factor, cuts in metals up to 2 in.
Thick tend to be smooth while cuts in thicker sections may be rougher but still
clean.
d) Cutting Specifications
• For applications where high-quality cuts are needed, some of requirements must
be consider which are:
i. Tolerances,
ii. Amount of bevel,
iii. Dross,
iv. Heat-affected zone
• Plasma cuts to closer tolerances than flame processes like oxyfuel because of the
faster cutting speeds heat the workpiece less, resulting in less distortion. Plasma is
capable of tolerances to 1/32 in. in materials under ½ in., but the tolerance
achieved depends on material type, thickness, and power supply. Plasma cutting
produces a bevelled cut, forming a wider cut at the top of the workpiece than at
the bottom. The bevel can easily be corrected or reduced with special techniques
or equipment. Generally the amount of bevel is less for thinner materials.
e) Cutting Gases
• The cutting gas selected depends on the speeds and quality of cut desired.
Several cutting gases can be used in a plasma system to improve cut
quality and speed. Nitrogen is widely used because it is relatively
inexpensive and can be used on many materials and thicknesses. Special
mixtures of argon and hydrogen can improve cutting speed and quality on
thicker metals and those other than carbon steels.
• Oxygen is used in combination with other gases to improve cut quality by
increasing heat, improving cutting speed, and/or reducing power
requirements. Compressed shop air is popular for many applications
because it is inexpensive and provides good quality cuts on thicknesses
under 1 in., especially on carbon steels.
f) Power Supply
• The power supply required depends on the material thickness and cutting
speeds desired. Increasing the power increases the cutting speed or
enables thicker metals to be cut without slow down. Power ratings are
commonly between 20 and 200 kW.
 Application of PAM
• Plasma cutting is used to cut particularly those nonferrous
and stainless steels that cannot be cut by the usual rapid
oxidation induced by ordinary flame torches.
• Plasma cutting can be used for stack cutting, plate beveling,
profiling and piercing.
• With some modifications, plasma arc cutting can be also
used for under water processing.
• Plasma arc cutting finds applications in many huge
industries including ship building, prssure vessel industries
and refineries.
• Thickness ranges 100 – 125 mm can be cut
• Also used in conventional turning and milling
 Advantages of PAM
• It cuts carbon steel up to 10 times faster
than oxy-fuel cutting, with equal quality
more economically.
• It leaves a narrower kerf.
• Plasma cutting being primarily a melting
process can cut any metal.
• Arc plasma torches give the highest
temperature as compared to other related
sources.
 Disadvantages of PAM
• High initial cost of the equipment
• Large heat affected zone.
• Rough Surface Finishing – requires
secondary process if necessary.
• Difficult to produce sharp corners.
• Smoky and noisy enivironment.
• Burr occurs.
Thank you