Hydrologic

Principles
Hydrologic Cycle
Components of Hydrologic Cycle
Precipitation - any liquid or frozen water that forms in the
atmosphere and falls to the Earth
Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from
the solid to the gas phase, without passing through the
intermediate liquid phase
Evaporation - the conversion of water to water vapor from a
water surface
Transpiration - the loss of water vapor through plant tissue
and leaves
Evapotranspiration - is the sum of evaporation and plant
transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to the
atmosphere.
Components of Hydrologic Cycle

Infiltration - the process by which precipitation or water

soaks into subsurface soils and moves into rocks through
cracks and pore spaces.
Interflow - the lateral movement of water in the unsaturated
zone, or vadose zone, that first returns to the surface or
enters a stream prior to becoming groundwater
Percolation – it the process where the water travels
downwards through the tiny spaces between rocks and soil
particles
Components of Hydrologic Cycle

Ground water flows - in porous media in the subsurface in

either shallow or deeper aquifer systems that can be
pumped for water supply to agricultural and municipal
water systems
Overland flow or Direct runoff - The remaining portion of
precipitation which flows generally in a down-gradient
direction to accumulate in local streams that then flow to
rivers.
Flow chart of the components of
the hydrologic cycle
Weather System | Atmospheric Parameters
1. Atmospheric Parameters
The typical weather patterns and the quality of local
atmospheric conditions.
• Atmospheric Pressure - measures the weight of the air per
unit area. Average air pressure at sea level is approximately 1
atmosphere, or 1013 millibars (mb) or 101.30 kPa or 14.7 lb/in2
or 760 mm-Hg or 29.97 in.-Hg. As elevation increases and the
density of air molecules decreases, atmospheric pressure also
decreases. At constant density, temperature is directly
proportional to pressure; thus, with an increase in temperature
comes an increase in pressure. Air pressure is proportional to
density, so that in the atmosphere a decrease in temperature
causes an increase in the density of the air molecules. Cold air
masses are generally associated with the higher atmospheric
pressure.
Weather System | Atmospheric Parameters
• Humidity - measure of the amount of water vapor in
the atmosphere
• Relative humidity - ratio of the air’s actual water vapor
content compared to the amount of water vapor at
saturation for that temperature.
• saturation vapor pressure - the pressure of a vapor
when it is in equilibrium with the liquid phase.
• dew point temperature - the temperature to which a
sample of air must be cooled to reach saturation.
Weather System | Atmosphere and Clouds
2. The Atmosphere and Clouds.
Atmospheric weather systems are fueled by solar input and
characterized by air masses in motion, circulating winds,
cloud generation, and changes in temperature and
pressure. Lifting mechanisms are required for moist air
masses to cool and approach saturation conditions. As a
result of the interaction of rising air masses with
atmospheric moisture, the presence of small atmospheric
nuclei, and droplet growth, precipitation in the form of rain,
snow, or hail can result.
Weather System | Atmosphere and Clouds
• Common Clouds
cirrus - feathery or fibrous clouds
stratus - layered clouds
cumulus - towering, puffy clouds
alto - middle-level clouds
nimbus - rain clouds
One type of high cloud of importance in hydrology is the
cumulonimbus , one often found in heavy thunderstorms
that produce massive rainfall. Cirrus clouds are very high
collections of ice crystals and often indicate the approach
of a cold front and that weather is about to change.
Weather System | General Circulation
3. General Circulation.
The general circulation of wind across the earth is caused
by the uneven heating of earth’s surface through solar
input, and by the earth’s rotation. At the equator, solar
radiation input and temperature are greatest because of
the shape and tilt of the globe relative to the sun. Three
latitudinal circulation cells transport heat from the equator
to the poles. As warm air travels northward in the middle
latitudinal cell on a spinning earth, it tends to shift to the
right (toward the east) in the northern hemisphere due to
the Coriolis force, thus causing the occurrence of winds
called westerlies. Between 30 degrees north latitude and
the equator, the flow is generally toward the south and is
altered to create the trade winds ( easterlies ) by the
Coriolis force in the northern hemisphere.
Weather System | General Circulation
Weather System | General Circulation
• Coriolis force - an effect whereby a mass moving in a
rotating system experiences a force (the Coriolis force )
acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the
axis of rotation. On the earth, the effect tends to deflect
moving objects to the right in the northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern and is important in the formation
of cyclonic weather systems.
• Westerlies - refers to the zone of winds poleward from
the subtropical high-pressure belt, present in both the
Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere, that is
characterized by migratory cyclones and anticyclones
traveling generally west to east.
Weather System | General Circulation
• Easterlies - the trade winds are the permanent east-to-
west prevailing winds that flow in the Earth's equatorial
region.
• Jet streams - fast flowing, narrow, meandering air
currents in the atmospheres.
• Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ - belt of low
pressure which circles the Earth generally near the equator
where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres come together. It is characterised by
convective activity which generates often vigorous
thunderstorms over large areas. It is known by sailors as
the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous,
windless weather.
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
4. Air Masses and Fronts
Air masses are large bodies of air with fairly consistent
temperature and humidity gradients in the horizontal
direction at a given altitude. Air masses dominate our
weather and are classified in two ways: the source from
which they were generated, land (continental) or water
(maritime), and the latitude of generation (polar or tropical).
The boundary between one air mass and another is
called a frontal zone, or front . When two air masses meet,
the front will slope diagonally, as the colder, denser air
mass pushes under the warmer air mass. Between the two
fronts, a transition zone occurs, usually 30 to 60 miles wide.
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
The 4 general air mass classifications categorized
according to the source region
1. Polar latitudes (P) - located poleward of 60 degrees north
and south
2. Tropical latitudes (T) - located within about 25 degrees of
the equator
3. Continental (c) - located over large land masses--dry
4. Marine (m) - located over the oceans----moist
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
Combinations of various types of air masses

cP - continental polar cold, dry, stable

cT - continental tropical hot, dry, stable air aloft--unstable
surface air
mP - maritime polar cool, moist, and unstable
mT - maritime tropical warm, moist, usually unstable
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
Air Masses that affect Philippine
weather
1. Northeast Monsoon ( Amihan )
2. Northeast Trade
Southwest Monsoon ( Habagat
3. South Pacific Trade
)
4. South Indian Westerlies
5. North Indian Westerlies
6. Temperate Zone Westerlies.
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
• Northeast Monsoon ( Amihan
)
A cool and dry northeast wind
coming from Siberia and China
and blows down to Southeast
Asia. This season is
characterized with slight to
moderate rainfall and a
prevailing cold wind that
affects east of the Philippines.
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
• Northeast Trade
The northeast trade winds are
prevailing winds in the
Northern Hemisphere at
approximately 30 degrees
latitude, which have the ability
to quickly propel a ship across
the ocean.
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
• Southwest Monsoon
Characterized by a strong,
generally West or southwest
breeze that is responsible for
bringing significant rainfall to
the Asian subcontinent and to
South and East Asia.
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
Different Types of Front

Cold front

a front in which cold air

is replacing warm air at
the surface.
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
Different Types of Front

Warm front

a front in which warm air

replaces cooler air at the
surface.
Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
Different Types of Front

Stationary front

a front that does not

move or barely moves.
 Weather System | Air Masses and Fronts
Different Types of Front

Occluded front

a weather front formed

during the process of
cyclogenesis, when a cold
front overtakes a warm front.
Cyclogenesis is the
development or
strengthening of cyclonic
circulation in the atmosphere
(a low-pressure area
Weather System | Thunderstorms
Thunderstorm, a violent, short-lived weather disturbance
that is almost always associated with lightning, thunder,
dense clouds, heavy rain or hail, and strong, gusty winds.
Thunderstorms arise when layers of warm, moist air rise in
a large, swift updraft to cooler regions of the atmosphere.
Weather System | Huricanes or Tropical Cycle
Cyclone any large system of winds that circulates about a
centre of low atmospheric pressure in a counterclockwise
direction north of the Equator and in a clockwise direction to
the south.
Weather System | Huricanes or Tropical Cycle
Anticyclones are so called
because they have a flow
opposite to that of cyclones—
i.e., an outward-spiralling
motion, with the winds
rotating clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the
Southern.
Weather System | Mechanisms of Precipitation
Formation
Mechanisms of Precipitation Formation

Precipitation is the primary input to the hydrologic cycle,

whether in the form of rainfall, snow, or hail, and is
generally derived from atmospheric moisture.
Weather System | Mechanisms of Precipitation
Formation
In order for precipitation to occur at the earth’s surface,

1. a moisture source must be available,

2. moist air must undergo lifting and resultant cooling,
3. a phase change must occur with resulting condensation
onto small nuclei in the air,
4. droplets must grow large enough to overcome drag and
evaporation to reach the ground.
Weather System | Mechanisms of Precipitation
Formation
Three main mechanisms of precipitation

1. convective - due to intense heating of air at the ground,

which leads to expansion and vertical rise of air
2. cyclonic - associated with the movement of large air-
mass systems, as in the case of warm or cold fronts; and
3. orographic - due to mechanical lifting of moist air masses
over the windward side of mountain ranges.
Weather System | Mechanisms of Precipitation
Formation
Three main mechanisms of
precipitation

1. convective - due to intense

heating of air at the ground,
which leads to expansion and
vertical rise of air
Weather System | Mechanisms of Precipitation
Formation

2. cyclonic - associated with

the movement of large air-
mass systems, as in the case
of warm or cold fronts
 Weather System | Mechanisms of Precipitation
Formation

3. orographic - due to
mechanical lifting of moist
air masses over the
windward side of mountain
ranges.
Weather System | Mechanisms of Precipitation
Formation
Condensation of water vapor into cloud droplets occurs
due to cooling of moist air to a temperature below the
saturation point for water vapor.

Condensation can be caused by (1) adiabatic cooling (no

heat loss to surroundings), (2) mixing of air masses having
different temperatures, (3) cooling by advection of cold air
masses, and (4) cooling by radiation.
Precipitation | Point Measurement
Rain Gauge - A rain gauge (also known as an udometer,
pluviometer, or an ombrometer) is an instrument used by
meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the
amount of liquid precipitation over an area in a predefined
period of time.
Precipitation | Point Measurement
Rain Gauge - A rain gauge (also known as an udometer,
pluviometer, or an ombrometer) is an instrument used by
meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the
amount of liquid precipitation over an area in a predefined
period of time.
Type of rain gauge
1. Non-Recording Type Rain Gauge
2. Recording Type Rain Gauges
2.1) Weighing bucket type
2.2) Tipping bucket type
2.3) Floating or natural syphon type rain gauge
Precipitation | Point Measurement
1. Non-Recording Type Rain
Gauge

Non-recording type rain gauge is

most common type of rain gauge
used by meteorological
department. It consists of a
cylindrical vessel 127mm in
diameter with a base enlarged to
210mm diameter.
Precipitation | Point Measurement
2.1 Weighing bucket type rain
gauge is most common self-
recording rain gauge. It consists
of a receiver bucket supported by
a spring or lever balance or some
other weighing mechanism. The
movement of bucket due to its
increasing weight is transmitted
to a pen which traces record or
some marking on a clock driven
chart.
Precipitation | Point Measurement
2.2 Tipping Bucket Type Rain
Gauge is a 30cm sized circular
rain gauge adopted for use by US
weather bureau. It has 30cm
diameter sharp edged receiver
and at the end of the receiver is
provided a funnel.
Precipitation | Point Measurement
2.3 Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge. The working
of this type of rain gauge is similar to weighing bucket rain
gauge. A funnel receives the water which is collected in a
rectangular container. A float is provided at the bottom of
container, and this float raises as the water level rises in the
container. Its movement being recorded by a pen moving on a
recording drum actuated by a clock work.
Precipitation | Point Measurement
Calculating Average Depth of Precipitation
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Theissen Polygon Method
3. Iso-Hyetal Method
Precipitation | Point Measurement
1. Arithmetic Mean
Precipitation | Point Measurement
2. Theissen Polygon Method
Precipitation | Point Measurement
3. Iso-Hyetal Method
Sample Problem

A drainage basin has the catchment area of 626 km2. There

are in all 11 rain- gauging stations of which 6 are within the
catchment and 5 are in the vicinity but outside the catchment.
The point rainfall observed during a particular storm at
various stations has been shown in Fig. 2.9. (a).
 Sample Problem

It is given that the areas of the polygons and the rainfall

station with its value is as follows:

Calculate average depth of precipitation over the catchment

by Arithmetic mean, Thiessen polygon and Isohyetal methods
and compare the results.
 Solution:

1) Arithmetic method

Referring Fig. 9(a).

There are 6 stations within the catchment.

Average depth of ppt. = (1.46 + 1.92 + 2.69 + 4.50 + 2.98 +

5.00)/6 = 3.09 cm
 Solution:

2. Theissen Polygon Method

 Solution:

3: Isohyetal Method
Precipitation | Point Measurement
Radar-Based Precipitation

Advances in weather radar (called NEXRAD for next-

generation radar) in the early 1990s greatly improved our
ability to determine rainfall rates over watershed areas.
NEXRAD reflects off raindrops in the atmosphere to estimate
rainfall rates in time and space. NEXRAD is a 10-cm-
wavelength radar that records reflectivity, radial velocity, and
spectrum width of reflected signals.
Precipitation | Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is a very complex series of processes (

Fig. 1–1b ), but under certain well-defined conditions the
response of a watershed to rainfall, infiltration, and
evaporation can be calculated if simple assumptions can be
made.
Precipitation | Hydrologic Cycle
A watershed is a contiguous area that drains to an outlet,
such that precipitation that falls within the watershed runs off
through that single outlet (the term catchment is sometimes
used synonymously for just the surface portion of the
watershed).

The watershed is the basic hydrologic unit within which all

measurements, calculations, and predictions are made in
hydrology (see Fig. 1–13 ).
Precipitation | Hydrologic Cycle
The water balance looks at how the amount of precipitation
compares with the water leaving the system as runoff or as
evapotranspiration. This balance will change throughout the
year and will be affected by the overall climate of the area
near to the river. The hydrologic continuity equation for any
system is
Precipitation | Hydrologic Cycle
For a given time period, a conceptual mathematical model for
the budget for the urban hydrologic cycle shown in Figure 1–
18 would become, in units of depth (in. or mm) over the basin
Precipitation | Hydrologic Cycle
Ways in denoting the volume of water added
1. Flowrate for a specified of time
2. Water depth across an area
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
Precipitation | Watershed
The watershed or basin area is an important physiographic
property that determines the volume of runoff to be expected
from a given rainfall event that falls over the area. Watershed
areas vary in size from a few acres in an urban area to
thousands of square miles for a major river basin. The
watershed divide is the loci of points (the ridge line) that
separates two adjacent watersheds, which then drain into
two different outlets. Figure 1–19a depicts several watershed
areas that have been defined based on topographic or
elevation data.
Precipitation | Watershed
The topographic divide for a basin is usually drawn on a
USGS map or quadrangle sheet (1:24,000 scale) or other
topographic map by identifying high points and contours of
constant elevation to determine directions of surface runoff.
The area encompassed by the divide is the watershed area.
Runoff originates at higher elevations and moves toward
lower elevations in a direction perpendicular to the contour
lines, as shown in Figure 1–19b .
SIMPLE RAINFALL– RUNOFF | Formula
Rational Method
STREAMFLOW AND THE HYDROGRAPH
Streamflow, or channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams,
rivers, and other channels, and is a major element of the
water cycle. It is one component of the runoff of water from
the land to waterbodies, the other component being surface
runoff. Water flowing in channels comes from surface runoff
from adjacent hillslopes, from groundwater flow out of the
ground, and from water discharged from pipes.
STREAMFLOW AND THE HYDROGRAPH
A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge)
versus time past a specific point in a river, channel, or
conduit carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed
in cubic meters or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs).
STREAMFLOW AND THE HYDROGRAPH
A typical hydrograph is characterized by (1) a rising limb , (2)
a crest segment , and (3) a recession curve.
STREAMFLOW AND THE HYDROGRAPH
The rising limb of the hydrograph represents the rapid
increase in resulting from rainfall causing surface runoff and
then later throughflow.
Crest Segment is one of the very important parts of the
hydrograph, as it contains the peak flow.
Recession Curve. A smoothed composite of the recessions of
several observed hydrographs, drawn to represent the
characteristic time graph of decreasing total runoff for a
drainage area after passage of a peak flow. The recession
limb extends from the peak flow rate onward.
STREAMFLOW AND THE HYDROGRAPH
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground
surface enters the soil.
Depression storage refers to small low points in undulating
terrain that can store precipitation that otherwise would
become runoff. The precipitation stored in these depressions
is then either removed through infiltration into the ground or
by evaporation.
A detention basin or pond detains water temporarily,
releasing water through a pipe or channel by means of a weir,
orifice, or pump.
STREAMFLOW AND THE HYDROGRAPH
HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS | Time Area Histogram
Time Area Histogram is used to compute the hydrograph
response from a watershed. The concept assumes that the
hydrograph is built up by various contributions from areas of
equal travel time from the outlet.
HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS | Time Area Histogram
Time Area Histogram is used to compute the hydrograph
response from a watershed. The concept assumes that the
hydrograph is built up by various contributions from areas of
equal travel time from the outlet.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Steps
The overall sequence of steps for hydrologic measurement
includes
1. Sensing, which transforms the intensity of the process into
a measurable signal;
2. Recording, usually in electronic form;
3. Transmitting to a central processing site via telemetry;
4. Translating, which converts the record into a data
sequence;
5. Editing, or checking for any errors in the data;
6. Storing, in a computer database for viewing;
7. Retrieving the data for further use.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Atmospheric
| Parameters and
| Precipitation

The measurement of atmospheric moisture near the ground

often utilizes a climate station, which usually consists of a
psychrometer (or hygrometer) to measure humidity, a rainfall
gage, an evaporation pan, and an anemometer for wind speed
and direction. Total incoming or outgoing radiation can be
measured with a radiometer. Weather balloons are used to
measure temperature, humidity, air pressure, and wind speed
at various elevations above the earth.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Atmospheric
| Parameters and
| Precipitation

The fundamental instrument for measuring atmospheric

pressure is the mercurial barometer , which is constructed by
filling a long glass tube with mercury. The barometer acts as
a weighing balance, and changes in atmospheric pressure
are detected from changes in the height of the column of
mercury. The psychrometer is an instrument based on
temperature differences between two thermometers, one of
which is covered in a wet cloth, called the wet bulb. The
difference in temperature of the dry and wet bulbs, when
ventilated, is a measure of degree of saturation of the air,
which is a measure of relative humidity.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Atmospheric
| Parameters and
| Precipitation

Precipitation or rainfall is measured at a point with either non-

recording or recording gages. The non-recording gage
consists of a simple open tube with readings along the side
for visually determining rainfall amounts. Recording gages
are required in urban settings for flood control studies if the
time distribution of rainfall is desired. The tipping bucket
recording gage operates off a pair of small buckets, which
move in a flip-flop motion and make electrical contact for
every increment of rainfall.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Atmospheric
| Parameters and
| Precipitation

Radar (radio detection and ranging) has been used to

measure rainfall rates on the ground since 1994, and GIS
methods have greatly improved our ability to determine
rainfall rates for specific watershed areas.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Evaporation and
| Infiltration Losses

Measurement of evaporation is usually from a standard class

A pan ( Fig. 1–29 ), which is filled to 8 in. and then observed
on a daily basis. Adjustments are made for rainfall input using
a rainfall gage nearby. Methods to compute and measure
evaporation and evapotranspiration are covered in detail in
Section 2.6. Evaporation and ET are very difficult to measure
accurately for large watersheds.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Evaporation and
| Infiltration Losses
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Evaporation and
| Infiltration Losses

Infiltration , or movement of water from the surface into the soil

zone, can be measured with a ring infiltrometer, which is a ring
about 2 ft in diameter driven into the soil.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Streamflow
| Measurement

Streamflow is generally measured by observing stage, or

elevation above a specified elevation datum (i.e., mean sea
level), in a channel and then relating stage to discharge via a
rating curve. A staff gage is a fixed scale set so that a portion
is immersed in water and can be read manually during storm
passage. A wire-weight gage is lowered from a bridge
structure to the water surface, and readings are taken as a
function of time through a storm event. A crest stage gage
uses a small amount of cork inside an enclosed staff gage.
The cork floats as the water rises and adheres to the scale
recording at the highest water level.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Streamflow
| Measurement

Most automatic recording gages, such as those used by the

USGS for routine streamflow monitoring, use a float-type
device to measure stage or a gas bubbler to measure
pressure ( Fig. 1–30a ). The bubble gage senses water level by
maintaining a continuous stream of gas in a small pipe under
the water. Another approach is to use a pressure transducer
near the bottom of a stream that senses the pressure or
height of water that sits above the monitor.
Acoustic Doppler flow meters (ADFM) have recently emerged
as a new method to accurately measure flow rate by
measuring the actual velocity profile in a pipe or open
channel.
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Streamflow
| Measurement
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Streamflow
| Measurement
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Streamflow
| Measurement

Stream Gage Station

with Telemetry
HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENT | Flood Alert System