Singular Propositions

• Delhi is Polluted
• Madhu is Intelligent
• Katra is not Polluted
• Narendra Modi is the Prime Minister of India
• Tajmahal is Beautiful
• Milky Way is a Galaxy.
• Sun is Superhot.
• Virat Kohli is Famous.

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 Singular Propositions
• If Sun is Hot, then Moon is Cold.
• Australia is Vast.
• Australia is a continent.
• India is a subcontinent.

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 General Proposition
All x is honest (x) Hx (T/F)
(Everything is honest)
Given anything, it is honest
Given any x, x is honest
(x) Hx
Universal Quantifier

Nothing is honest.
Given any x, it is not honest. (x) ~ Hx
 GP cont…
Some x is honest. (x) Hx (T/F)
Something is honest.
There is at least one x such that x is honest
(x) Hx
Existential Quantifier

Something is not honest. (x) ~ Hx

There is at least one thing such that it is not honest
There is at least one x such that x is not honest
(x) ~ Hx
 Traditional Square of Opposition

(x) Hx A E (x) ~Hx

(x) Hx I O (x) ~Hx

~ A  O, also ~ O  A Contrary Relation
Sub-contrary
~ E  I, also ~ I  E Subalternation
Contradiction
 Two-Predicate Proposition
All cats are animals. (x) (Cx  Ax)
Given anything, if it is a cat, then it is an animal.
Given any x, if x is a cat, then x is an animal.
(x) (Cx  Ax)

No cats are animals. (x) (Cx  ~ Ax)

Given anything, if it is a cat, then it is an animal.
Given any x, if x is a cat, then x is not an animal.
(x) (Cx  ~ Ax)
 TP cont…
Some cats are animals. (x) (Cx . Ax)
There is at least one thing such that it is a cat and it is an
animal.
There at least one x such that it is a cat and it is an animal.
(x) [Cx . Ax]

Some cats are not animals. (x) [Cx . ~ Ax)

There is at least one thing such that it is a cat and it is
not an animal.
There at least one x such that it is a cat and it is not an animal.
(x) [Cx . ~ Ax)
 Modern Square of Opposition

(x)(CxAx) A E (x)(Cx~Ax)

(x)(Cx.Ax) I O (x)(Cx.~Ax)

(x)(CxAx)  ~(x)(Cx.~Ax)
(x)(Cx.~Ax)  ~ (x)(CxAx)
~(x)(Cx~Ax)  (x)(Cx.Ax) Contradiction
~(x)(Cx~Ax)  (x)(Cx.Ax)
 Quantification Theory
All Engineers are Intelligent.
Given any x, if x is an Engineer, then x
is Intelligent.: (x) [Ex  Ix]
• Gods are Immortal.
• Given any x, if x is God, then x is
Immortal.: (x) [Gx  Ix]
• (A and E do not have existential import.)

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 Existential Import and Symbolization
of A and E
• Since A and E do not have existential import,
the are vacuously true.
• Which means, even though the class denoted
by the term God is empty, (x) [Gx  Ix] is true.
• Hence the material implication.
• A and E are false only on one condition:
• If we find a member of the class Engineer who is
not intelligent. In other words, Ex is True while Ix is
false.

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For (x) [Ex  Ix] to be True:
[Ea  Ia] . [Eb  Ib] . [Eg  Ig] . [Ed  Id]……… [En  In]
Must be True
However, since I and O propositions have existential import:
(x) [Lx . Hx]
There must be an instance of Lx, where L stands
for Lawyer and H for honest. The class of
honest lawyers cannot be empty.

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 Modern Square of Opposition

(x)(CxAx) A E (x)(Cx~Ax)

(x)(Cx.Ax) I O (x)(Cx.~Ax)

(x)(CxAx)  ~(x)(Cx.~Ax)
(x)(Cx.~Ax)  ~ (x)(CxAx)
~(x)(Cx~Ax)  (x)(Cx.Ax) Contradiction
~(x)(Cx~Ax)  (x)(Cx.Ax)
 Symbolization: Some Examples
Mangoes are fruits. (x) (Mx  Fx)
Snakes are reptiles. (All Snakes are reptiles)
(x) (Sx  Rx)
Dogs exist. (x) Dx (There is at least one thing
such that it is a dog) – Existence is not
regarded as a predicate in the predicate logic
Tomatoes are fruits as well as vegetables.
(x) [Tx (Fx . Vx)]
Do More Exercises
 Grapes and Mangos are Sweet.
(x) [(Gx v Mx)  Sx]………………(1)
Why disjunction and not conjunction?
(x)[Gx  Sx] and (x)[Mx  Sx]……(2)

Are (1) and (2) logically equivalent?

• Why is the following symbolization wrong:
(x) [(Gx . Mx)  Sx]………………...(3)

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 Instantiation and Generalization
• (x)[Gx  Sx] and (x)[Mx  Sx]……………..(2)
• (Gy  Sy) . (My  Sy)-----------(Instantiation)
• (~Gy V Sy) . (~My V Sy)
• (~Gy . ~My) V Sy
• ~ (Gy V My) V Sy
• (Gy V My)  Sy
• (x) [(Gx v Mx)  Sx]…………………………(1)
»(Generalization)

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 Subject term is a Noun
Subject term Singular Noun
Socrates is Wise. (Ws)
Subject term is a Plural Noun that indicates the
intended class:
Azaleas bloom if and only if they are fertilized.
All Azaleas bloom if and only if they are
fertilized. (x)[Ax ⊃ (Bx ≡ Fx)]

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 Symbolization
A professor is a good lecturer if and only if he is well-
informed as well as entertaining.
(x) {[Px  [Lx  (Wx . Ix)]}
Police and firemen are underpaid and corrupt.
(x) [(Px v Fx)  (Ux . Cx)]
Narendra Modi is the prime minister of India. Pn
If either the BJP wins or the Congress loses, Nitish
Kumar and Lalu Yadav will enjoy.
(Wb v ~ Wc)  (En . El)
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• None but Brave deserve the fair.
• Given any x, if x deserve the fair then x is
brave.
• (X)(Fx ⊃ Bx)

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Only snakes and lizards thrive in the desert.
(x)[Tx ⊃ (Sx ⋁ L x)]
Oranges and lemons are citrus fruits.
(x)[(Ox ⋁ L x) ⊃ Cx]
Ripe apples are crunchy and delicious.
(x)[(Rx A x) ⊃ (C x Dx)]

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Peaches are edible unless they are rotten.
All peaches are edible unless they are rotten.
(x)[Px ⊃ (∼Rx ⊃ Ex)] or (x)[Px ⊃ (E x ⋁ R x)]

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Cats and dogs bite if they are frightened or harassed.
(x){(Cx ⋁ Dx) ⊃ [(Fx ⋁ Hx) ⊃ Bx]}
or
(x){Cx ⊃ [(Fx ⋁ Hx) ⊃ Bx]} . (x){Dx ⊃ [(Fx ⋁ Hx) ⊃ Bx]}

Why not (x){(Cx . Dx) ⊃ [(Fx ⋁ Hx) ⊃ Bx]}

Think before you see the answer on the next slide!

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 Answer
• Cx and Dx would mean:
• For all x, if x is a Cat and x is a Dog
• Which implies that the same x is a Cat and a
Dog, which is absurd.
• Thus we translates it at, either x is a Cat or x is
a Dog.

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 Unexpressed Quantifiers
Emeralds are green gems. All emeralds are green gems.
There are lions in the zoo. Some lions are animals in the
zoo.
A tiger is a mammal. All tigers are mammals.
A fish is not a mammal. No fish are mammals.
A tiger roared. Some tigers are animals that roared.
Children are human beings. All children are human
beings.
Children live next door. Some children are people
who live next door.
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A few soldiers are heroes. Some soldiers are heroes.
Anyone who votes is a citizen. All voters are citizens.

Not everyone who votes is a Democrat.

Some voters are not Democrats.

Not a single dog is a cat. No dogs are cats.

All newborns are not able to talk.
No newborns are people able to talk.
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 Key word (to be eliminated) Translation hint
whoever, wherever, always, anyone, use “all” together with people,
never, etc. places, times
a few, several, many use “some”
if … then use “all” or “no”
Unless use “if not”

only, none but, none except, no … use “all”

except
the only use “all”
all but, all except, few two statements required
not every, not all use “some … are not”
there is, there are use “some”
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 Rule for A propositions
• Language following these words goes in the
subject term: “if,” “the only,” and “W” words
(”who,” “what,” “when,” “where,”
“whoever,” “whatever,” “whenever,”
“wherever”).

• Language following these words goes in the

predicate term: “only if,” “only,” “none but,”
“none except,” and “no … except.”

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 Quantification Rules
• Universal Generalization (UG)
• My to (x) Mx (where y stands for any
individual constant)
• but not from Ma to (x) Mx (where a is an
individual constant)

• Universal Instantiation (UI): (x)Mx to Ma/My

• Existential Generalization (EG):
Ma to (∃x) Mx or My to (∃x) My
• Existential Instantiation (EI):
(∃x) Mx to Ma
(Restriction: The existential name a must be a
new name that does not appear in
anyprevious line (including the conclusion
line).
 Proof-I
1. (x)(Px ⊃ Qx) ⊃ (∃x)(Rx Sx)
2. (x)(Px ⊃ Sx x)(Sx ⊃ Qx) / (∃x)Sx
3. (x)(Px ⊃ Sx) 2, Simp
4. (x)(Sx ⊃ Qx x)(Px ⊃ Sx) 2, Com
5. (x)(Sx ⊃ Qx) 4, Simp
6. Py ⊃ Sy 3, UI
7. Sy ⊃ Qy 5, UI

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 Proof-I Continues
8. Py ⊃ Qy 6, 7, HS
9. (x)(Px ⊃ Qx) 8, UG
10. (∃x)(Rx . Sx) 1, 9, MP
11. Ra . Sa 10, EI
12. Sa . Ra 11, Com
13. Sa 12, Simp
14. (∃x)Sx 13, EG

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 Proof-II
1. [(∃x)Ax . ∃x)Bx] ⊃ C j
2. (∃x)(Ax . Dx)
3. (∃x)(Bx . Ex) / C j
4. Am . Dm 2, EI
5. Bn . En 3, EI
6. Am 4, Simp
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 Proof-II Continues
7. Bn 5, Simp
8. (∃x)Ax 6, EG
9. (∃x)Bx 7, EG
10. (∃x)Ax .∃x)Bx 8, 9, Conj
11. C j 1, 10, MP

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