Transducers

• A transducer is any device which converts one

form of energy into another.
• Examples of common transducers
• A microphone converts sound into electrical
impulses and a loudspeaker converts electrical
impulses into sound,
• a light bulb is a transducer for converting
electrical energy into optical energy.
• An electric motor is a transducer for
conversion of electricity into mechanical
energy or motion.
• Fuel cell – Converts the energy from a reaction
within a fuel cell to electrical energy.
• Electrochemical Transducers.
• Battery – Converts chemical energy directly into
electrical energy.
• A cathode and an anode (typically two dissimilar
metals) are each immersed in an electrolyte
solution allows ions to flow between the two
solutions.
Due to the flow of ions between the two
solutions a potential difference (or voltage) is
created.
Electromechanical Transducers (Some are also called
actuators)
Strain gauge – Converts the deformation (strain) of an
object into electrical resistance
Galvanometer – Converts the electric current of a coil in a
magnetic field into movement,
Generators – Converts mechanical energy (motion) into
electrical energy.
Motor – Converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
 Schematic of an incandescent light bulb. A
power source’s positive and negative terminals
are connected to the bulb’s terminals. An
electrical current flows through the filament.
The resistance of the tungsten filament converts
the electrical energy into heat and light.

The Incandescent Light Bulb (a transducer)

• Mechanical actuators convert a mechanical input
(usually rotary) into linear motion.
• Eg. screw jack. Rotation of the screw causes the
legs of the jack to move apart or move together.
this mechanical rotational input is clearly
converted into linear mechanical motion.
 Classification of Transducers
• Transducers may be classified according to their
application, method of energy conversion, nature of
the output signal, and so on.

Transducers

On The Basis of Transducers/

Active/Passive Primary/Secondary Analog/Digital
principle Used Inverse
Transducers
Capacitive

Inductive

Resistive
 Active and Passive Transducers
• Active transducers :
• These transducers do not need any external source of
power for their operation. Therefore they are also
called as self generating type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices
which operate under the energy conversion
principle.
II. e.g. temperature or strain to electric potential,
without any external source of energy being used.
Classification of Active Transducers
 Example of active transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducer- When an external
force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there
will be a change in the voltage generated
across the surface. This change is measured by
its corresponding value of sound or vibration.
 Passive Transducers
• These transducers need external source of power
for their operation. So they are not self
generating type transducers.
• A DC power supply or an audio frequency
generator is used as an external power source.
• These transducers produce the output signal in
the form of variation in electrical parameter like
resistance, capacitance or inductance.
• Examples – Thermistor, Potentiometer type
transducer
• The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive
transducer that uses electrical resistance
variation in wires to sense the strain produced
by a force on the wire. It is a very versatile
detector and transducer for measuring
weight, pressure, mechanical force or
displacement.
• R = resistance • A = the area of the
• ρ = specific resistance of the conductor in square meters
conductor material • When a strain produced by
• L = the length of the a force is applied on the
conductor in meters wires, L increase and A
decrease.
 Primary and Secondary Transducers
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as
well as electrical device. The mechanical
device converts the physical quantity to be
measured into a mechanical signal.
• Such mechanical device are called as the
primary transducers, because they deal with
the physical quantity to be measured.

• The electrical device then convert this

mechanical signal into a corresponding
electrical signal. Such electrical device are
known as secondary transducers.
• Primary transducer: A THERMISTOR used for
the measurement of temperature. The
THERMISTOR senses the temperature directly
and causes the change in resistor with the
change in temperature.

Resistance

Temperature
Example of Primary and secondary
transducer
Primary transducer

Displacement

voltage

Secondary transducer
• For eg , in case of pressure measurement ,
bourdon tube is a primary sensor which
converts pressure first into displacement, then
the displacement is converted into an output
voltage by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is a
secondary transducer.
LVDT : linear variable differential transformer
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (lVDT)
• Passive inductive transducers require an
external source of power.
. The Differential transformer is a passive
inductive transformer, well known as Linear
Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
• It consists basically of a primary winding and
two secondary windings, wound over a hollow
tube and positioned so that the primary is
between two of its secondary's.
• An iron core slides within the tube and
therefore affects the magnetic coupling
between the primary and two secondary's.
According to Transduction principle
used
 Capacitive transduction
• The capacitive transducer is used extensively for
the measurement of displacement, pressure.
• In capacitive transduction measurand is converted
to a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel
plates of conducting material separated by an
electrical insulating material called a dielectric.
The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled.
• dielectric between the plates is either air or
some other medium..The relationship between
the capacitance and the size of capacitor plate,
amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is
given by
• C = ε0 εr A / d
• d is the separation distance of plates (m)
• C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
• ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
• εr : relative permittivity
• A is the effective (overlapping) area of
capacitor plates (m2)
There are 3 ways to change capacity
variation of plate separation
variation of plate area
variation of dielectric constant
• Capacitive devices are often used as
displacement sensors, in which motion of
a moveable capacitive plate relative to a
fixed one changes the capacitance.
This transducer is used to convert the value of
displacement or change in pressure in terms of
frequency.
A change in capacitance occurs either by
changing the distance between the two plates
or by changing the dielectric.

Area=A
 Electromagnetic transduction:
• the measurand is converted to voltage induced
in conductor by change in the magnetic flux, in
absence of excitation.
• The electromagnetic transducer are self
generating active transducers
• The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in
flux
Current induced in a coil.
 Inductance Transduction:
• In inductive transduction, the measurand is
converted into a change in the self inductance
of a single coil. It is achieved by displacing the
core of the coil that is attached to a mechanical
sensing element.
Photovoltaic Transduction:
In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is
converted to voltage generated when the junction
between dissimilar material is illuminated.
Photovoltaic cells generate an output voltage
proportional to radiation intensity.
 The incident radiation may be infrared,
ultraviolet, gamma rays, or X rays as well as
visible light.
 Photoconductive Transduction:

• In photoconductive transduction the

measurand is converted to change in resistance
of semiconductor material by the change in
light incident on the material.
 Analog and Digital Transducers
Analog transducers:
• These transducers convert the input quantity into an
analog output which is a continuous function of time.
• Thus a strain gauge, an L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a
thermistor may be called as Analog Transducers as they
give an output which is a continuous function of time.
Digital Transducers:
• These transducers convert the input quantity into an
electrical output which is in the form of pulses and its
output is represented by 0 and 1.
Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducer:
• Transducers convert non electrical quantity
to electrical quantity.
Inverse Transducer:
• Inverse transducers convert electrical
quantity to a non electrical quantity.
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Resistive transducers :
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which
the resistance change due to the change in some
physical phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a
simple equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.

1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer
 POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They
consist of a resistive element provided with a sliding
contact. The sliding contact is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or
combination of the two. The combinational potentiometer
have their resistive element in helix form and are called
helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
• Resistance of metal increase with increases in
temperature. Therefore metals are said to have
a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• Fig shows the simplest type of open wire
construction of platinum résistance
thermometer. The platinum wire is wound in
the form of spirals on an insulating material
such as mica or ceramic.
• This assembly is then placed at the tip of
probe.
• This wire is in direct contact with the gas or
liquid whose temperature is to be measured.
• The resistance of the platinum wire changes
with the change in temperature of the gas or
liquid
• This type of sensor have a positive temperature
coefficient of resistivity as they are made from
metals they are also known as resistance
temperature detector.
• Resistance thermometer are generally of probe
type for immersion in medium whose
temperature is to be measured or controlled.
 THERMISTOR
•Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal
resistor”.
•Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors.
•They are made of semiconductor material which
have negative temperature coefficient of resistivity
i.e. their resistance decreases with increase of
temperature.
•Thermistor are widely used in application which
involve measurement in the range of 0-60º
Thermistor are composed of sintered mixture of
metallic oxides such as magnese, nickle, cobalt,
copper, iron and uranium.
•The thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and
discs.
•The thermistor provide a large change in resistance
for small change in temperature. In some cases the
resistance of themistor at room temperature may
decreases as much as 6% for each 1ºC rise in
temperature.
 Thermocouples
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one
end, and there is a temperature difference between
the joined ends and the open ends, thermal emf is
generated, which can be measured in the open
ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples.
 Construction and Working Principle

If consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined

at one end as shown in figure. This end A is
known as hot or sensing end(or junction). The
other end is known as cold or reference end
because it is kept at a lower but constant
temperature(reference temperature).
• When end A is heated, an emf (called
thermoelectric emf) in mV is produced
between it and the cool ends B and C.
•The magnitude of this emf depends on(i) the
temperature difference between the hot and
cold junctions and(ii)the type of wire materials
used.
• Thermocouples are made from a number of
different metals covering a wide range of
temperature from -270°Cto +2700°C.
• Applications
• In industry, thermocouples are used for
measuring temperatures of industrial furnaces,
• In medicalwork, extremely small size
thermocouple probes are used for measuring
internal body temperature.