2.

10 HAULING AND COMPACTION

EQUIPMENT
TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED
1. Hauling Equipment
 Type of trucks
 Selection of Dump Trucks
 Capacities of trucks and hauling units
 Small Vs. Large Dump Trucks
 Truck production
2. Compacting Equipment
 Types of Compacting Equipment

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.1. General
Hauling or the transportation of excavation is a major earthmoving
activity
In addition to the dozer and loader, hauling equipment includes
trucks, wagons, scrapers, conveyor belts, and trains.
Most of the belt – type conveyors used in construction are portable units used for the
movement of bulk construction materials within a small area or for placing concrete.
Narrow gauge rail built trains are often used in tunnels.
Wagons are earthmoving trailers pulled by tractors
or truck tractors.

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.1. General
Trucks have high travel speeds when operating on suitable roads, provide
relatively low hauling costs.
Trucks provide a high degree of flexibility permitting modifications in the
total hauling capacity of a fleet and adjustments for changing haul distances.
Most trucks may be operated over any haul road for which the surface is
sufficiently firm and smooth and on which the grades are not excessively steep.
There is a wide variety of types and sizes of dump trucks available. Trucks can be divided
into
 Highway trucks and
 Off highway trucks.
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1.1. General
Some trucks now in use are designated as off-highway trucks because their size and
total load are larger than that permitted on public highways.
These trucks are used for hauling materials on large project sites, where their size
and costs are justified.
Off-highway trucks are used for hauling materials in quarries and on large projects
involving the movement of substantial amounts of earth and rock.

1.2 Types of Trucks

Trucks may be classified according to a number of factors including:
i. The size and type of engine: gasoline, diesel, butane, propane.
ii. The number of gears.
iii. The kind of drive: two-wheel, four-wheel, six-wheel, etc.
iv. The number of wheels and axles and arrangement of driving wheels.
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HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.2 Types of Trucks
v. The method of dumping the load: rear-dump, side-dump, bottom-dump.
vi. The class of material hauled: earth, rock, coal, ore, etc.
vii. The capacity: gravimetric (tons) or Volumetric (cubic yards or cubic
meter).
viii. The type of frame: rigid frame or articulated
A. Rear Dump trucks
These are very common and heavy duty trucks and are capable of
handling even quarry rocks.

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.2 Types of Trucks

Rear dump trucks are used when:

The material to be hauled is free-flowing or has bulky components.
The hauling unit must dump into restricted locations or over the edge of
a bank or fill.
Maximum maneuverability in the loading or dumping area is required.
Maximum gradeability is required
Maximum flexibility is required for hauling a variety of materials such
as earth, sand, and gravel and more bulky material such as blasted rock,
ore, coal etc.

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.2 Types of Trucks

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HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.2 Types of Trucks
B. Bottom Dump trucks
These are suitable for long hauls of easy flowing materials like sand, gravel,
dry earth and which are to be spread in layers as on a fill or dam.
These are unsuitable for big size material or wet or sticky materials due to
limited openings.
Due to low long bodies they have fast speeds on suitably maintained roads, but
longer turning radius is required and maneuvering becomes more difficult in
restricted spaces.
Bottom dump trucks should be used, when:
 The material to be handled is relatively free-flowing.
 The road is suitably maintained, thus permitting high speed travel.
 Long and steep grades are existing in the way.
 The load is to be spread in wind rows.
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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.2 Types of Trucks
B. Bottom Dump Trucks

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.2 Types of Trucks
C. Side Dump trucks
These dump trucks are most suitable when dumping is required to be
done in a long narrow length or on one or both sides of a road (for
dumping material on the road shoulders).
These requires a very less time to dump the material, whereas the rear
dump truck must stop, reverse and then dump its load which needs a
considerably more time.
Side dump trucks are available in self-propelled that is truck type
models or in a fully trailer type models (which is commonly known as
side dump tractor-trailer).

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1.2 Types of Trucks

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.2 Types of Trucks

Can operate over bad ground

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.3 Selection of Dump Trucks
Selection of type and size of dump truck is very important task and
should be carefully decided considering various factors. Some of the
important factors are:
A. Nature of work:
The side dump units are used where space is restricted.
For the transportation of rocks and other heavy materials under
adverse road conditions, the rear dump trucks are most suitable.
Bottom dump trucks are suitable only for free flowing materials
and are used to spread the material on the fill
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1.3 Selection of Dump Trucks
B. Nature of Haul:
On steep grades, the self-propelled rear dump trucks are selected as the uniform load
distribution causes greater weight to be placed.
Whereas, in the bottom dump units, which are semi-trailer type, while moving upgrade
causes concentration of load towards the rear.
Thus these dump units can be limited to the level ground.
C. Matching with other equipment:
Generally, as a thumb rule size of the hauling unit is selected between 4 to 6 times the
bucket capacity of the loading unit.
The number of hauling units is decided by time required in one cycle, i.e. loading,
hauling, unloading and returning back.
Care should be taken that the waiting time for a truck by a loading unit or by a truck for
its turn for loading is kept minimum
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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.3 Selection of Dump Trucks

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.3 Selection of Dump Trucks

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.4. Capacities of Trucks and Hauling Equipment
The heaped capacity will vary with the height and angle at which the material may extend
above the sides.
Wet earth or sandy clay may be hauled with a slope of about 1: 1.
Dry sand or gravel may not permit a slope greater than about 3:1.

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.5 Advantage and Disadvantages of Small and Large Trucks

Advantages of Small Trucks Disadvantages of Small Trucks

A small truck is more difficult for the excavator to
They are more flexible in maneuvering, which load owing to the small target for depositing the
may be an advantage on short hauls. bucket load.
More total spotting time is lost in positioning the
Speed, can achieve higher haul and return trucks because of the larger number required.
speed. More drivers are required to haul a given output of
material.
Production, there is less loss in production
when one truck in a fleet breaks down. The greater number of trucks increases the danger
of units bunching at the pit, along the haul road, or
at the dump,
Balance of fleet: it is easier to balance the
number of trucks with the output of the The greater number of trucks required may increase
the total investment in hauling equipment, with
excavator, which will reduce the time. more expensive maintenance and repairs, and more
parts to stock.

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.5 Advantage and Disadvantages of Small and Large Trucks
Advantages of Large Trucks Disadvantages of Large Trucks
The cost of truck time at loading is greater, especially
Fewer trucks are required, which may reduce with small excavators.
the total investment in hauling units and the
cost of maintenance and repair. The heavier loads may cause more damage to the haul
roads thus increasing the cost of mechanical
Fewer drivers are required. maintenance to the trucks and requiring more
support equipment for maintenance of the haul
The smaller number of trucks facilitates road.
synchronizing the equipment and reduces the It is more difficult to balance the number of trucks
danger of bunching by the trucks. This is with the output of the excavator.
especially true for long hauls.
Repair parts may be more difficult to obtain.
There are fewer trucks to maintain and repair
The largest sizes may not be permitted to haul on
and fewer parts to stock. highways.

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HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production
The most important consideration when matching excavator and truck is finding
equipment having compatible capacities. Matched capacities yield maximum
loading efficiency.
The following steps can be adopted in calculating truck production:
Step-1 Bucket loads
The first step in analyzing truck production is to determine the number of
excavator bucket loads it takes to load the truck.

Bucket loads must be an integer number.

Check load weight against gravimetric capacity of the haul unit.

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1.6 Truck Production

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production
Step-2 Load time and truck load volume
In calculating the time required for a haul unit to make one complete cycle, it is customary to break the
cycle down into fixed and variable components.
Fixed time: spot time (moving the unit position to begin loading),
load time, maneuver time, and dump time. Fixed time can usually
be closely estimated for a particular type of operation.
Variable time: represents the travel time required for a unit to
haul material to the unloading site and return.

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1.6 Truck Production

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production
Step-3 Haul Time
Hauling should be at highest safe speed and in the proper gear.
Travel time will depend on
The vehicle’s weight and power,
The condition of the haul road,
The grades encountered, and the altitude above sea level.
Methods for calculating a vehicle’s resistance to movement, its maximum
speed, and its travel time are :Rolling Resistance, Grade Resistance, Effective
Grade, Effect of Altitude and Effect of Traction

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

 Resistance may be expressed in either kilograms per metric ton or in kilograms [ kg/t]
 Rolling resistance is primarily due to tire flexing and penetration of the travel surface.
 The rolling resistance factor for a rubber‐tired vehicle equipped with conventional tires moving over a hard,
smooth, level surface has been found to be about 20 kg/ton of vehicle weight.
 Crawler tractors may be thought of as traveling over a road created by their own tracks. As a result, crawler
tractors are usually considered to have no rolling resistance when calculating vehicle resistance and
performance.

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TABLE -1(ROLLING RESISTANCE)

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GRAPH 1 PERFORMANCE CHART

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production
B. Grade Resistance
Grade resistance represents that component of vehicle weight which acts parallel to an inclined
surface.
 When the vehicle is traveling up a grade, grade resistance is positive.
 When traveling downhill, grade resistance is negative.

C. Effective Grade
The total resistance to movement of a vehicle (the sum of its rolling resistance and grade resistance)
may be expressed in pounds or kilograms.
However, a somewhat simpler method for expressing total resistance is to state it as a grade (%),
which would have a grade resistance equivalent to the total resistance actually encountered.

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production
D. Effect of Altitude
All internal combustion engines lose power as their elevation above sea level
increases because of the decreased density of air at higher elevations.
Engine power decreases approximately 3% for each 305 m increase in altitude
above the maximum altitude at which full rated power is delivered.
Turbo‐charged engines are more efficient at higher altitude than are naturally
aspirated engines and may deliver full rated power up to an altitude of 3,050 m
or more.
Manufacturers use a derating factor to express percentage of reduction in
rated vehicle power at various altitudes.

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1.6 Truck Production

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

To adjust for altitude duration

when using travel time curves,
multiply the time obtained
from the curve by the quantity
“1 + de-rating factor” to
obtain the adjusted travel time.

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

However, travel-time curves

cannot be used when the
effective grade is negative.
In this case, the average
speed method must be used
along with the vehicle retarder
curve.

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production
Step-4 Dump Time
Dump time will depend on the type of hauling unit and congestion in the dump area. Is
the dump area crowded with support equipment?
Rear dumps must be spotted before dumping. Total dump time can exceed 2 minutes.
Bottom dump units dump while moving.

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1.6 Truck Production

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

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1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
1. HAULING EQUIPMENTS
1.6 Truck Production

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
2. Compacting Equipments
2.1 General
Compaction is the process whereby material particles are constrained to pack
more closely together through a reduction of air void content, generally by
mechanical means.
Compaction can also be defined as the process of densifing or increasing the
unit weight of a soil mass through application of static or dynamic force, with the
resulting expulsion of air and in some cases moisture.
Compaction is basically used to:
Increase bearing strength
Reduce compressibility
Improve volume change characteristics
Reduce permeability
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2. Compacting Equipments
2.1 General
Degree of compaction depends on:
Soil property
Moisture content: water lubricates the soil particles to slide into the
densest position up to a certain limit, beyond which they create
hydrostatic resisting forces.
Compaction method employed
Amount of compactive effort
Thickness of soil layer being compacted
Material gradation: well graded materials compact better than poorly
graded.

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2. Compacting Equipments
2.1 General
Influence of moisture on compaction
Compaction depends mainly on the moisture content and on the amount of compacting
force applied.
For each soil there exists an optimal moisture
content O.M.C. at which the maximum compaction
can be achieved.

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2. Compacting Equipments

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
2. Compacting Equipments

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HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
2. Compacting Equipments
The function of compaction equipment is to produce higher density in soil mechanically.
The basic forces used in compaction are static weight, kneading, impact and vibration:
 Static weight – Pressure
 Kneading – manipulation or rearranging
 Impact – sharp blow and
 Vibration ‐ shaking
Many types of compacting equipments, which incorporate at least one or more of the
compaction methods, are available, including:
 Sheepsfoot Rollers
 Tamping Rollers
 Smooth drum vibratory soil compactors
 Pad drum vibratory soil compactors
 Pneumatic tired rollers.

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2. Compacting Equipments

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
2. Compacting Equipments
The table below summarizes the principal methods of compaction for the
various types of compactors.

A) Smooth wheel rollers

The smooth-drum compactors, whether single- or dual-drum models, generate
three compactive forces: (1 ) pressure, (2) impact, and (3) Vibration.

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
2. Compacting Equipments
A) Smooth wheel rollers
These rollers are most effective on granular materials, with particle
sizes ranging from large rocks to fine sand.
They can be used on semi-cohesive soils with up to about 10% of
the material having a PI of 5 or greater.
They provide 100% coverage under the wheels with ground contact
pressures as high as 45 to 55 lb./in2.
They are not suitable for producing high unit weights of compaction
when used on relatively thick layers.

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2. Compacting Equipments

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
2. Compacting Equipments
B) Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers
Four parameters must be known to determine the compacting ability of pneumatic rollers:
(1 ) Wheel load, (2) Tire size, (3) Tire ply and (4) Inflation pressure.
Pneumatics are used on small- to medium-size soil compaction jobs, primarily on bladed
granular base materials.
They are also used in compacting asphalt, recycled pavement, and base and sub base
materials.

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2. Compacting Equipments
c) Sheepsfoot Rollers
The sheepsfoot roller does not adequately compact the upper 2 to 3 in. of a lift, and it
should, therefore, be followed by a lighter pneumatic-tired or steel-wheeled roller if no
succeeding lift is to be placed.
Sheepsfoot roller is suitable compacting all fined-grained materials, but is generally not
suitable for use on cohesionless granular materials.

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2. Compacting Equipments

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2. Compacting Equipments
D) Tamping Foot Compactor
Tamping foot compactors are high speed, self propelled, non-vibratory rollers.
It is suitable for compacting all fined-grained soils, but is generally not
suitable for use on cohesionless granular soils.
This type roller does not adequately compact the upper
2 or 3 inches of a lift. Therefore, for the last lift it should
be followed with a pneumatic or smooth-drum roller.

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2. Compacting Equipments

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2. Compacting Equipments

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
2. Compacting Equipments

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2. Compacting Equipments

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
2. Compacting Equipments

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 HAULING AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT 2.
Compacting Equipments
G) Rammer (Back fill tamper)
Gasoline-engine-driven rammers are used for
compacting cohesive or mixed soils in
confined areas.
Performance criteria include pounds per
blow, area covered per hour, and depth of
compaction (lift) in inches.
Rammers are self propelled in that each blow
moves them slightly to contact a new area.

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2. Compacting Equipments
H) Wheel Attachment Compaction
To avoid hazards of having men
work in excavations of limited dimensions, a
compaction wheel attached to an excavator
boom is often used to achieve compaction
when backfilling utility trenches.
The feet on these wheels can be either the
sheepsfoot or tamping shape.
The wheels are designed to compact all types
of soil.

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2. Compacting Equipments

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2. Compacting Equipments
Compactor Productivity
 Equation may be used to calculate compactor production based on compactor speed, lift
thickness, and effective width of compaction.
 The accuracy of the result will depend on the accuracy in estimating speed and lift
thickness.
 Trail operations will usually be necessary to obtain accurate estimates of these factors.

 Where
 P = number of passes required
 W = width compacted per pass (m)
 S= Compactor Speed (km/hr)
 L = compacted lift thickness (cm)

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2. Compacting Equipments
Example
A self-propelled tamping foot compactor will be used to compact a fill being constructed of clay material.
Field tests have shown that the required density can be achieved with four passes of the roller operating at
an average speed of 3 mph. The compacted lift will have a thickness of 6 in. The compacting width of this
machine is 7 ft. One bank cubic yard equals 0.83 ccy. The scraper production, estimated for the project, is
510 bcy/hr. How many rollers will be required to maintain this production? Assume a 50-min hour
efficiency.
Solution
Production (CCY per hour) = (16.3 x W x S x L x h) / P
= (16.3*7ft*3mph*6in*50/60)/4= 428CCY/hr
=(428CCY/hr)/0.83= 516BCY/hr
Number of roller required = Grading Production/Roller production
= (510BCY/hr)/516BCY/hr = 0.99 ~1Roller is required

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