Weight and Balance

Commercial Pilot
 Objective:
To provide the student with a thorough
understanding of the key terminology, the
effects of various weight and balance
conditions, and the methods of performing
and amending loading computation.

To be a professional and responsible PILOT

who understands the principle behind the
weight and balance of aircrafts.
 Weight and Balance
An airplane must only be flown within
certificated limits of weight and balance to
ensure that it remains controllable, performs
adequately and is not overstressed.
Correct weight and balance means:
Maximum allowable weight is not exceeded;
Center of gravity (CG) is within a specified
range.
 Weight
Is the force produced when mass is subjected to
gravity.
The main force created to counteract the
weight and allow the airplane to be
maneuvered is lift.
The heavier an airplane is, the poorer its
performance will be. In particular it will have:
A higher stall speed;
A higher takeoff speed and longer takeoff run;
Poorer climb performance;
Less maneuverability;
Higher fuel consumption and less endurance;
Reduced cruise speed for a given power setting;
Higher landing speed and longer landing
distance; and
Greater braking requirements when stopping.
 Terminologies
Basic Empty weight – a precise, measured
weight for a particular airplane. It is found in
the aircraft’s weight-and-balance
documents as the licensed empty weight.
Empty weight includes:
Airframe and the powerplant
All permanently installed operating equipment
All non-drainable fluids
Empty weight does not include:
Pilot and their equipment and baggages;
Passengers;
Baggage, cargo and temporary ballast
Full oil and usable fuel.
Gross weight – the actual total weight of the
aircraft and its contents at any particular time.
Is the sum of the empty weight including the
pilots, passengers and cargo (payload), added
ballast and fuel load.
Should not exceed the maximum weight
permissible for any particular maneuver.
On takeoff, gross weight must not exceed the
structural maximum takeoff weight; and on
landing, gross weight must not exceed the
structural maximum landing weight.
Ramp weight – term used to describe the
aircraft loaded for flight prior to engine start
or taxi. Also know as the Taxi weight.
Takeoff weight – weight of the aircraft after
taxiing and just before you release the
brakes to begin takeoff roll.
Landing weight – the takeoff weight minus
the total fuel burned, used, jettisoned en
route.
Useful Load – weight of the flight crew and
usable fuel, as well as any passengers,
baggage and cargo.
Payload – term used for the weight of only
the passengers, baggage and cargo.

Maximum Ramp weight – maximum weight

allowed for ground operations such as
taxiing.

Maximum takeoff weight – maximum weight

that will ensure safe flight before takeoff.

Maximum Landing weight – maximum

weight that the aircraft can endure during
landing without damaging the structure.

Maximum Zero Fuel weight – maximum

permissible weight of an aircraft with no
usable fuel.
Conversion of Fuel and Oil
One gallon of AVGAS weighs 6 pounds (lb)

One liter of AVGAS weighs 1.56 lbs (0.71 kg)

One gallon of oil weighs 7.5 pounds (lb)

So 8 quartz or 2 gallons weighs 15 pounds (lb)
 Balance
Moment – the moment of a force is its
turning effect, and it depends on two things:
The size (magnitude) of the force; and
Its moment arm, which is the distance from
the point at which the force is applied to the
pivot point (or fulcrum).

The moment is expressed in pound-inches

(lb-in), or inch-pounds (in-lb) since the force
being applied (weight) is measured in
pounds (lb) and the arm is in inches (in).
 Terminologies
Center of Gravity (CG) – imaginary point where the
aircraft will balance if suspended.

The point in the aircraft through which the total

weight is said to act in a vertically downward manner.

Center of Gravity is also the point of balance as such

it affects the stability of the aircraft both on the
ground and in the air.

CG must always be within limits.

CG position remains the same regardless of datum

position.
Center of Gravity limits – the center gravity
range of movement between a maximum
forward position and a maximum rearward
position.
These limits are set by the aircraft
manufacturer and can be found in the flight
manual and are define relative to the
datum.
These may also be given as a percentage of
the mean chord of the wing.
The Center of Gravity should always be
within limits to avoid accidents from
happening.
Reference Datum – a point along the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft designated by the
manufacturer as the zero or reference point from
which all balance arms begin.
Datum point for a particular aircraft will be stated
in its weight-and-balance documents.
The position of the datum is often referred to as
“station zero” (or STA 0). Other positions may be
specified relative to the station zero datum – for
instance, a point 40 inches aft of the datum is
called “STA 40.”
All weights forward of the Datum will have a
negative arm and a negative moment. While all
weights aft of the Datum will have a positive arm
and a positive moment.
Common places for Reference Datum:
Nose of the aircraft;
Firewall behind the engine; and
An external point along the extended
longitudinal axis, ahead of the nose.
Arm – the horizontal distance from the aircraft’s
datum to the CG position or centroid of a body
of mass.
All arm and moment forward of the datum gives
a negative value.
All arms and moment aft of the datum gives a
positive value.
In arithmetical calculations, a positive value
multiplied by a negative value results in a
negative answer but two positive or two
negative values multiplied together always
produce a positive answer.
 Limitations
Limitations on weight are set to ensure
adequate margins of strength and
performance.

Limitations on Center of Gravity (CG) position

are set to ensure adequate stability and
control of the aircraft in flight.
 Effects of Overloading
The four forces of lift, weight, thrust and drag
acting on an aircraft all induce stress into the
airframe structure in the form of tension,
compression, torsion and even bending. The
structure while absorbing these stresses may be
subjected to extremes of temperatures.
The stress and temperature factors gradually
fatigue the structure as time progresses which
eventually can cause the structure to fail
together.
Fatigue on aircraft means permanent loss of the
physical properties like strength, durability and
hardness.
OVERLOADING the aircraft will induce greater
additional fatigue.
Overloading is the principal stress and
fatigue inducing factor for aircraft.

Effects of Overloading:
Performance is reduced.
Fuel consumption
Endurance of the aircraft
Takeoff and landing distance
Climb gradient
Wing root stresses will increase.
Maneuverability will reduce. (Less responsive to
control inputs and more difficult to fly.)
Tire and brake wear and tear.
Weight limits:
Maximum Ramp weight
Maximum zero fuel weight
Maximum take-off weight (MTOW)
Maximum landing weight.
Effects of CG Position on
Airplane Handling
Center of gravity:
The point that the total weight of the aircraft is
said to act through
The point of balance
The point that the aircraft maneuvers about in air
The point that the three axes of the aircraft pass
through

The position of the CG determines how

stable and maneuverable the aircraft will
be.
A CG moving towards the nose of the aircraft:
The horizontal stabilizer has a long moment arm,
the airplane will be very stable longitudinally,
and resist any pitching moment.
Stability: INCREASES;
Maneuverability: DECREASES.

A CG moving aft towards the tail of the aircraft:

Stability: DECREASES;
Maneuverability: INCREASES.

Too much stability increases the flight control

stick forces and the work load on the pilot trying
to overcome them.
Too much maneuverability makes the aircraft
unstable and difficult to control.
Weight and CG Outside
Limits
If the aircraft is heavy or the weight is outside
limits, then remove some of the loads which
is either baggage, passengers or fuel.

If the aircraft is out of balance, with the CG

outside of the specified limits, then you must
move the CG position.
 3 Ways to Move CG
Position
1. Shift load – moving a body of mass to either
forward or aft direction from its original
place.

2. Remove some of the load - removing a

body of mass from its place and leaving it
behind.

3. Add ballast – Adding a body of mass to a

certain place to add weight and move the
position of the CG.
 Movement of CG in Flight

CG on FWD LIMIT CG on AFT LIMIT

STABILITY STABILITY
STICK FORCES STICK FORCES
MANEUVERABILITY MANEUVERABILITY
DRAG DRAG
STALLING SPEED STALLING SPEED
FUEL CONSUMPTION FUEL CONSUMPTION
Effects of increasing weight
V1 (Decision Speed) Increase
VR (Rotation Speed) Increase
Vs (Stalling Speed) Increase
Takeoff and Landing Run Increase
Range and Endurance Decrease
Rate of Descent Increase
Max Horizontal Speed Decrease
Rate of Climb Decrease
Fuel Consumption Increase
Max Altitude Decrease
Braking Energy Increase
Tire Wear Increase
Structural Fatigue Increase
 Calculation of the Basic
Empty Weight (BEW) and
CG Position
ITEM Weight (lb) ARM (in) MOMENT ( lb-in)
Nose Wheel 500 -20 -1000
L. Main Wheel 2000 30 +60,000
R. Main Wheel 2000 30 +60,000
BEW 4500 lb +24.4 +110,000 lb-in

WEIGHT x ARM = MOMENT

TOTAL MOMENT ÷ TOTAL WEIGHT = CG POSITION
• The basic Empty Weight of the aircraft is 4,500 lb and the total moment
Is +110,000 lb-in. Divide the Total moment by the total weight, the CG is 24.4 in
Aft the Datum as shown by the positive sign.
 Exercises
A light aircraft has the datum 20 inches
behind the nose wheel and 70 inches
forward of the main wheels. The readings on
the weighing scales are 255 lbs nose wheel
and 1,010 lbs on each main wheel. What is
the BEM and CG position?
A C172 aircraft has a weighing value of 156
kg on the nose wheel, and a total of 624 kg
for the main wheels. The manufacturer
assigned the datum 6 ft forward of the main
wheels. The distance between the nose
wheel and main wheel is 9 ft. What is the
BEW and CG position of the aircraft in lbs
and inches?
Calculation of the Ramp Weight,
Takeoff weight and CG Position
for Light Aircraft
Given:
BEW – 2,415 lbs; 77.7 in
Front seat occupants – 340 lbs; 79 in
Rear seat occupants – 340 lbs; 117 in
Baggage zone B – 200 lbs; 150 in
Fuel at Ramp – 60 US gallons; 75 in
Taxi/runup fuel – 13 lbs

What is the Ramp weight, Takeoff weight and the

CG position of the aircraft?

Weight x Arm = Moment;

Total Moment ÷ Total weight = CG Position
 ITEM Weight (lbs) Arm (in) Moment/100
Basic Empty Weight 2,415 77.7 1,876.46
Front Seat Pax 340 79 268.6
Rear Seat Pax 340 117 397.8
Baggage A - 108 -
Baggage B 200 150 300
Zero Fuel Weight 3,295 2,842.86
Fuel (60 gallons) 360 75 270
RAMP WEIGHT 3,655 3,112.86
Fuel for taxi/runup -13 75 -9.75
TAKEOFF WEIGHT 3,642 85.20 3,103.11
Given: (For C172)
Basic empty weight of
RP-C3565;
Front Seat – 190 lbs;
Usable Fuel of C172
Taxi fuel – 3 gallons.

Find the Ramp Weight,

and the Takeoff weight
of the aircraft including
its CG positions in lbs.
Center Of Gravity Moment
Envelope

Weight: 2,273 lbs.

Moment: 96,148 lbs-in
Center Of Gravity Limits

Weight: 2,273 lbs.

CG: 42.30 in
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
(MAC)
Is the chord of an imaginary rectangular
wing that has the same aerodynamic
characteristics as the actual wing. It is
calculated from the aerodynamic
characteristics of that particular wing.

Common for swept wing airliners.

 Example:
If the MAC is 152 in and its leading edge is 40
in aft of the datum, and the CG is 66 in aft of
the datum, what is the CG position as a
percent of MAC?
 Exercises:
If the MAC leading edge (LEMAC) is 55 in aft
of Datum and the CG is 64 in aft of datum
with a MAC of 170 in. What is the CG position
as a percentage of MAC?
 Exercises:
An aircraft has a MAC of 82 inches. The
leading edge of the MAC is 103 inches aft of
the datum. If the CG position is 14.7% MAC,
what is the CG distance from the datum.
 Re-Positioning of the
Center of Gravity
If the center of gravity is found to be out of
limits for any part of the flight, the aircraft
must not take off until the load has been
adjusted so as to bring the center of gravity
to limits.
By repositioning the weight whish is already on
board the aircraft. (Passengers, Baggage)
By adding/removing weight.

When the amount of weight adjustment has

been calculated, it must be ascertained that
this makes the aircraft safe for both take-off
and landing.
 Re-Positioning of CG by
Moving the Weight
When weight is moved forward, the total moment decreases;
When weight is moved aft, total moment increases.

FORMULA:

Weight Shifted x Distance Weight is shifted = Total Weight x ΔCG

(w)(d) = (WT)(ΔCG)
 Sample Problem
CG limits of an aircraft are from -4 to +3 inches
from the datum. It is loaded as shown below:
ITEM WEIGHT (lb) ARM (in) MOMENT (lb-
in)
BEM 2,800 2 5,600
Crew 340 -20 -6,800
Fuel 600 10 6,000
Forward Hold 0 -70 0
Aft Hold 150 80 12,000
Total Weight 3,890 Total Moment 16,800

Therefore, CG = 16,800/3,890 = 4.32 in

The aft limit is +3 and so the CG is 1.32 in out of limits
It can be corrected by moving some baggage from the aft hold to the
Forward hold, a distance of 150 in (80 in aft to 70 in forward)
How much baggage can be shifted by using our formula?

(w) (d) = (WT) (ΔCG)

w = (WT)(ΔCG)/d
w = (3,890)(1.32)/150

w = 34.232 lb

To check that the aircraft’s CG is still within limits for takeoff

And landing, compute the CG at the Zero Fuel Weight with
35 lb of baggage moved to the forward hold.
ITEM WEIGHT (lb) ARM (in) MOMENT (lb-
in)
BEM 2,800 2 5,600
Crew 340 -20 -6,800
Fuel 0
Forward Hold 35 -70 -2,450
Aft Hold 115 80 9,200
Total Weight 3,290 ZFW Moment 5,550

ZFW CG = 5,550/3,290 = 1.69 in (within limits)

 Exercise:
The CG limits of an aircraft are from 83 in to
93 in aft of the datum. The CG as loaded is
found to be at 81 in aft of the datum. The
total weight is 3240 lb. How much weight
must be moved from the forward hold, 25 in
aft of the datum, to the aft hold, 142 in aft of
the datum, to bring the CG onto the forward
limit?
An aircraft has a total weight of 5,500 lb. The
CG is 22 in aft of datum. A passenger, weight
150 lb, moves aft from row 1 to row 3 a
distance of 70 in. What will be the new
position of the CG. (All dimension aft of
datum)
 Re-Positioning of CG by
adding/removing Weight
FORMULA:
 Sample Problem
Determine the location of the CG if 140 lbs is
added to station 150.
Given:
Aircraft Total Weight – 6,680 lb
CG position – 80 in.
 Exercises:
Determine the location of CG if 300 lbs
passenger is removed from station 25 in.
Given: Total weight = 2,500 lbs
CG = 20 in

Determine the location of CG if 500 lbs

passenger is added to station –10 in
Given: Total Weight = 3,200 lbs
CG = 20 in
The CG limits of an aircraft are from 84 in aft
to 96 in aft of datum at all weight.
Given:
BEW = 1,250 lbs;80 in
Crew = 340 lbs; 82 in
Fuel = 300 lbs; 72 in
Baggage = 0; 140 in
What is the minimum ballast required to be
placed in the baggage compartment to bring
the CG to 84 in?