Introduction & Basic Concepts

Lecture 1
 Dimensions and Units
Dimension:
Measure of a physical quantity, e.g.,
length, time, mass
Units:
Assignment of a number to a dimension,
e.g., (m), (sec), (kg)
 INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS
SI, the international system of units are divided into three
classes :

1. Base units
2. Derived units
3. Supplementary units.
Conversion Factors
IMPORTANT ENGINEERING CONSTANTS
AND EXPRESSIONS
Nomenclature
 Dimensional Homogeneity
Law of dimensional homogeneity (DH): every additive term
in an equation must have the same dimensions
Example: Bernoulli equation

{p} = {force/area}={mass x length/time2 x 1/length2} = {M/(T2L)}

{1/2V2} = {mass/length3 x (length/time)2} = {M/(T2L)}

{gz} = {mass/length3 x length/time2 x length} ={M/(T2L)}

Interpolation of Data

x  x1 y  y1

x 2  x1 y 2  y1
 A Remark on Significant Digits
After completion of the
calculations, round the result
off to the number of significant
digits of the least accurate data.
9.876+(4.567 x 1.234 -
2.453)/6.1 = 10.39775=10

Because the least accurate data

(ie 6.1) has only two significant
digits
A result with more significant digits than that of
given data falsely implies more accuracy.
Mathematical Modeling of a Physical Problem
Problem-Solving Technique
Step 1: Problem Statement
Step 2: Schematic
Step 3 : Assumptions and
Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and
Discussion
Objectives
Introduction
Approaches in Thermodynamics
System, Surrounding and Boundary
Properties of a System
State and Equilibrium
Processes and Cycles
Pressure & its measurements
 Thermodynamics and Energy
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.
Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words
Therme heat and
dynamis power
which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert
heat into power.
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
 Approaches In Thermodynamics

Macroscopic Approach – Classical Thermodynamics

The macroscopic approach to thermodynamics is
concerned with the gross or overall behavior.

Microscopic Approach – Statistical Thermodynamics

A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior
of large groups of individual particles.
S.No Macroscopic Approach Microscopic Approach

1 The analysis of macroscopic The advanced statistical and

system requires simple mathematical methods are
mathematical formulae. needed to explain the changes in
the system.

2 The properties like pressure The properties like velocity,

and temperature can be momentum, impulse, kinetic
measured very easily. The energy, force of impact etc.
changes in properties can be which describe the molecule
felt by our senses. cannot be easily measured by
instruments. Our senses cannot
feel them.
3 In order to describe a system Large number of variables are
only a few properties are needed to describe a system.
needed.
Laws of Thermodynamics

 Zeroth Law of thermodynamics

 First Law of thermodynamics
 Second Law of thermodynamics
 Third Law of thermodynamics
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics First Law of Thermodynamics
a concept of temperature a concept of internal energy.

Second Law of Thermodynamics Third Law of Thermodynamics

the principle of increase of entropy. the absolute zero of entropy.

These laws are based on experimental observations and have no

mathematical proof.
 Continuum
Matter is made up of atoms that are widely
spaced in the gas phase.

It is very convenient to disregard the atomic

nature of a substance and view it as a
continuous, homogeneous matter with no
holes, that is, a continuum.

The continuum idealization allows us to treat

properties as point functions and to assume
Despite the large gaps between the properties vary continually in space with
molecules, a substance can be treated no jump discontinuities.
as a continuum because of the very
large number of molecules even in an
This idealization is valid as long as the size of
extremely small volume.
the system we deal with is large relative to the
space between the molecules.
we limit our consideration to substances that can be modeled as a continuum.
 System, Surrounding and boundary
A system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space chosen
for investigation.

The mass or region outside the

system is called the surroundings.

The real or imaginary surface that

separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.
Closed System
A closed system (also known as a
control mass) consists of a fixed
amount of mass.
No mass can cross its boundary, i.e,
no mass can enter or leave a closed
system.
But energy, in the form of heat or
work, can cross the boundary.
The volume of a closed system does
not have to be fixed.
 Open System

A open system (also known as a control volume) consists of a fixed

space.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
 Isolated System
Neither mass nor energy can transfer to or from the system
Types of Boundary
 Properties of a System

Any characteristic of a system

is called a property. Some
familiar properties are
pressure, temperature, volume,
mass, viscosity, thermal
conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity,
velocity and elevation.
 Extensive Property
A property is called extensive if its value for an overall system is the
sum of its values for the parts into which the system is divided.
Mass, volume, energy, momentum are extensive .
Extensive properties depend on the size or extent of a system.
The extensive properties of a system can change with time.
Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties
(with mass m being a major exception)
Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties
 Intensive Property

A property which is independent of the size or extent of a system

and may vary from place to place within the system at any
moment.
Thus, intensive properties may be functions of both position and
time.
Generally lowercase letters are used for intensive properties
(with pressure P and temperature T being the obvious
exceptions).
 Illustration

The mass of the whole is the sum of the masses of the parts, and
the overall volume is the sum of the volumes of the parts.
the temperature of the whole is not the sum of the temperatures of
the parts; it is the same for each part.
Mass and volume are extensive, but temperature is intensive.
 State and Equilibrium

The word state refers to the

condition of a system as
described by its properties.
At a given state, all the
properties of a system have
fixed values.
If the value of even one
property changes, the state A system at two different states.
will change to a different one.
Equilibrium
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or
driving forces) within the system.
A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is
isolated from its surroundings.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium until the
conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are
satisfied.
Thermal Equilibrium Mechanical Equilibrium
Phase Equilibrium Chemical Equilibrium
A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system. That is, the system involves no
temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow.

A system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure

at any point of the system with time.

A system is in phase equilibrium when the mass of each phase reaches

an equilibrium level.

A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition does not

change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
 A Simple Compressible System

A system is called a simple compressible system in

the absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational,
motion, and surface tension effects.
These effects are due to external force fields and are
negligible for most engineering problems.
 The State Postulate
The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is
given by the state postulate.

“The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by

two independent, intensive properties.”

The state of nitrogen is fixed by two

independent, intensive properties.
 Process

Any change that a system undergoes

from one equilibrium state to another is
called a process.
The series of states through which a
system passes during a process is called
the path of the process.
To describe a process completely, one
should specify the initial and final states
of the process, as well as the path it
follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.
 A Quasi-static Process
the system remains infinitesimally close to
an equilibrium state at all times, it is
called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium
process.
Engineers are interested in
quasiequilibrium processes for two
reasons.
First, they are easy to analyze;
second, work-producing devices deliver
the most work when they operate on
quasiequilibrium processes. Therefore,
quasi-equilibrium processes serve as
standards to which actual processes can
be compared.
 Cycle

A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence

of processes that begins and ends at
the same state.

At the conclusion of a cycle all

properties have the same values they
had at the beginning.

Cycles that are repeated periodically

play prominent roles in many areas of
application.
 Pressure

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit

area.
The unit of newtons per square meter (N/m2), which is called
a pascal (Pa).
 Pressure at a Point
Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions.
(Pascal’s Law) Px =Py=Pz
Pressure has a magnitude, but not a specific direction, and thus
it is a scalar quantity.
 F1 F2 F A
P1  P2    2  2
A1 A2 F1 A1

Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal mechanical

advantage

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 Pressure Measurement

Two commonly used devices for

measuring pressure are the
manometer and the Bourdon tube.
Manometers measure pressure
differences in terms of the length of
a column of liquid such as water,
mercury, or oil.
P1 + wg(a+h)- mgh- wga=P2
A Bourdon tube gage shows a curved tube having an elliptical cross
section with one end attached to the pressure to be measured and the
other end connected to a pointer by a mechanism.
When fluid under pressure fills the tube, the elliptical section tends to
become circular, and the tube straightens.
This motion is transmitted by the mechanism to the pointer.
Other Pressure Measurement Devices