Chapter 1

Introduction Data communication

By Ashenafi s.
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 1
Data communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable.

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected

by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can
transport a signal carrying information.
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 2
 • Communication system made up of a combination of
hardware and software
• Effectiveness of data communication system depends
on:
1. Delivery : The system must deliver data to correct
destination. Data received by the indented user only
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (no
change).
• Data changed & uncorrected is unusable

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 3
 3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in timely
manner
 Data arrived late are useless
 In the same order (video and audio) & without delay (Real
time transmission)
4. Jitter: Variation in the packet arrival time (uneven quality in
the video is the result)

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 4
 Data Flow

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 5
 Data Flow
• Simplex (one way street)
• The communication is unidirectional

• Only one device on a link can transmit; the other can

only receive
• Use the entire capacity of the channel to send data

• Example: Keyboards, Monitors

Data

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 6
 • Half-Duplex (one-lane with two-directional traffic)
• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa
• The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by the
transmitting device
• Example: Walkie-talkies

Data

Data

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 7
 • Full-Duplex (Duplex) (two-way street)
• Both stations can transmit and receive at same time

• Signals going in either direction sharing the capacity of

the link
• Sharing can occur in two ways:
• Link has two physically separate transmission paths
• One for sending and the other for receiving
• The capacity of the channel is divided between signals
travelling in both directions
• Example: Telephone network

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 8
 Communication model

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 9
 data communication model

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 10
 1. Message: the information (data) to be communicated
– Consist of text, numbers, pictures, audio, or video
2. Sender: the device that sends the data message
– Computer, workstation, telephone handset, video
camera, …
3. Receiver: the device that receives the message
– Computer, workstation, telephone handset,
television, ….
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 11
 4. Medium: The physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver
– twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber-optic, radio waves

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 12
 5. Protocol: a set of rules that govern data
communications
– An agreement between the communicating devices
– Devices may be connected but not communicating
(no protocol)
– Arabic speaker with Japanese speaker

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 13
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 14
 Protocols Architecture
Need For Protocol Architecture
E.g. File transfer
 Source must activate comms. Path or inform network of destination
 Source must check destination is prepared to receive
 File transfer application on source must check destination file management
system will accept and store file for his user
 May need file format translation
Task broken into subtasks
Implemented separately in layers in stack
Functions needed in both systems
Peer layers communicate

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 15
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 16
  All activity in the Internet that involves two or more
communicating remote entities is governed by a protocol
 Protocols are running everywhere in the Internet
 A protocol defines the format and the order of messages
exchanged between two or more communicating entities, as
well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or receipt of
a message or other event.

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 17
  Task of communication broken up into modules
 file transfer could use three modules
 File transfer application
 Communication service module
 Network access module

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 18
 A Three Layer Model
 Network Access Layer
 Transport Layer
 Application Layer

Network Access Layer

Transport Layer
Application Layer

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 19
 Network Access Layer
• Exchange of data between the computer and the
network
• Sending computer provides address of destination
• May invoke levels of service
• Dependent on type of network used (LAN, packet
switched etc.)

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 20
  Transport Layer
 Reliable data exchange
 Independent of network being used
 Independent of application
 Application Layer
 Support for different user applications
e.g. e-mail, file transfer

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 21
 Protocol Data Units (PDU)
• At each layer, protocols are used to communicate
• Control information is added to user data at each layer
• Transport layer may fragment user data
• Each fragment has a transport header added
• Destination SAP
• Sequence number
• Error detection code
• This gives a transport protocol data unit

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 22
 Protocol Data Units

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 23
 Operation of a Protocol Architecture

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 24
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 25
  Key Elements of a Protocol
 Syntax
 Data formats
 Signal levels
 Semantics
 Control information
 Error handling
 Timing
 Speed matching
 Sequencing

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 26
 Standardized Protocol Architectures

 There is Two standards network architecture :

 OSI Reference model
Never lived up to early promises
 TCP/IP protocol suite
Most widely used

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 27
 OSI-Open Systems Interconnection
 Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
 Seven layers
 A theoretical system delivered too late!
 OSI - The Model
 Each layer performs a subset of the required communication
functions
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more
primitive functions
 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 28
OSI Layers

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 29
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 30
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 31
 Physical Layer
Transmission Media

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 32
  Transmission medium:: the physical path between
transmitter and receiver.
 Repeaters or amplifiers may be used to extend the length
of the medium.
 Communication of electromagnetic waves is guided or
unguided.
 Guided media :: waves are guided along a physical path
(e.g, twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical fiber).
 Unguided media:: means for transmitting but not
guiding electromagnetic waves (e.g. wireless
communication ).

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 33
 Twisted Pair
 Two insulated wires arranged in a spiral
pattern
 Copper or steel coated with copper
 The signal is transmitted through one wire and
a ground reference in other wire.
 Local loop connection to central telephone
exchange is twisted pair.
 Limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate
due to problems with attenuation, interference
and noise
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 34
  Issue: cross-talk due to interference from other signals
 “shielding” wire (shielded twisted pair (STP)) with
metallic braid or sheathing reduces interference.
 “twisting” reduces low-frequency interference and
crosstalk.

UTP
STP

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 35
 Coaxial Cable

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 36
 divided into two basic categories for coaxial used in
LANs:
50-ohm cable [baseband]
75-ohm cable [broadband or single channel baseband]
 In general, coax has better noise immunity for higher
frequencies than twisted pair.
 Coaxial cable provides much higher bandwidth than
twisted pair.
 However, cable is ‘bulky’.

Transmission Media 37
 Optical Fiber
 Optical fiber consists of a very fine cylinder of glass
(core) surrounded by concentric layers of glass
(cladding).
 a signal-encoded beam of light
 large bandwidth
 low attenuation and interference

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 38
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 39
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 40
 Data Link Layer

Data link layer has responsibility of transferring datagram

from one node to adjacent node over a data link

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 41
  Requirements and Objectives:
 Maintain and release data Link
 Frame synchronization
 Error control
 Flow control
 Addressing
 Link management
 DLL functions
 providing service interface to the network layer.
 Data Link Protocols must take circuit errors.
 Flow regulating
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 42
 Sending machine Receiving machine
Frame Packet
Packet

Header Payload fild Trailer Header Payload field Trailer

 Each layer takes data from above

 adds header information to create new data
unit
11/22/2019 5:09 AM
 passes new data unit to layer below 43
Frame synchronization: Data are sent in blocks called
frames. The beginning and end of each frame must be
recognized.
Flow control. The sending station must not send frames
at a rate faster then the receiving station can absorb them.
Error control. Any bit errors introduced by the
transmission system must be checked & corrected.
Addressing. On a multipoint line, such as a LAN, the
identity of the two stations involved in a transmission
must be specified.
Link management. The initiation, maintenance, and
termination of a data exchange requires a fair amount of
coordination and cooperation among stations.
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 44
 Framing:
– encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
Error Detection:
– errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
– receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
two types of errors:
• Lost frame
• Damaged frame
Error Correction:
– receiver identifies and corrects bit errors without
retransmission
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 45
 Network Layer
 Concerned with getting packets from source to
destination.
 network layer: logical communication between hosts
important functions:
 path determination: route taken by packets from source
to dest. Routing algorithms
 switching: move packets from router’s input to
appropriate router output
 call setup: some network architectures require router
call setup along path before data flows
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 46
  What service model for “channel” transporting packets
from sender to receiver?
 guaranteed bandwidth?
 preservation of inter-packet timing (no jitter)?
 loss-free delivery?
 in-order delivery?
 congestion feedback to sender?

The most important

abstraction provided virtual circuit
or
by network layer: datagram?
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 47
Routing protocol
Goal: determine
“good” path
(sequence of
routers) thru
network from
source to dest.

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 48
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 49
 Transport Layer
 layer is to provide efficient, reliable and cost-effective
service to users.
 provide logical communication between app processes
running on different hosts
 transport layer: logical communication between
processes
 principles behind transport layer
services:
 multiplexing/de-multiplexing
 reliable data transfer
11/22/2019 5:09 AM
 flow control 50
  Multiplexing and de-multiplexing
 TP is run in end systems
 send side: breaks app messages into
segments, passes to network layer
 rcv side: reassembles segments into
messages, passes to app layer
 each datagram carries 1 transport-layer
segment
 each segment has source, destination
port number
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 51
 There are two types of transport services:
UDP: connectionless transport
TCP: connection-oriented transport
Connection-oriented transport: TCP
 segment structure
 reliable data transfer
 flow control
 congestion control
 connection setup

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 52
  connectionless transport
 User Datagram Protocol(UDP)
 unreliable,
 unordered delivery:
 no-frills extension of “best-effort” IP
 no handshaking between UDP sender, receiver
 each UDP segment handled independently of others

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 53
 Why is there a UDP?
• no connection establishment (which can add
delay)
• simple: no connection state at sender,
receiver
• small segment header
• no congestion control: UDP can blast away as
fast as desired
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 54
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 55
 SESSION layer
 defines how to start, control and end conversations
(called sessions) between applications.
 the control and management of multiple bi-
directional messages
 synchronizes dialogue between two hosts‘
 Establishment, maintaining and release of session
 Provide dialog management
 Regulate which side transmit, when, for how long (Sync.)
 Provide synchronization between user tasks
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 56
 Handshaking

Synchronization

Synchronization
Acknowledgment

Acknowledgment

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 57
 Presentation Layer

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 58
  The presentation layer is responsible for
 Translation -convert data format to
understood and accepted by other layers
 Compression -represent an information
source (a data file, an image) as accurately as
possible using the fewest number of bits
 encryption process of transforming
information using an algorithm to make it
unreadable
 Decryption- making readable

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 59
 Application Layer

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 60
  Application Layer
 There is a need for support protocols, to allow
the applications to function
 Some network applications
 DNS: handles naming within the Internet
 POP – IMAP – SMTP: handle electronic mail
 FTP: File Transfer over the Internet
 WWW – HTTP: Web world
 Multimedia

11/22/2019 5:09 AM 61
 TCP/IP Model

Application Layer
Application programs using the network

Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)

Management of end-to-end message transmission,
error detectionTCP/IP
and error
Model correction

Network Layer (IP)

Handling of datagrams : routing and congestion
Data Link Layer
Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery,
access to physical networks
Physical Layer
Physical Media
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 63
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 64
11/22/2019 5:09 AM 65