Noise

and

Interference
 Noise in Communication Systems

1. Introduction 11. Signal - to – Noise

2. Thermal Noise 12. Noise Factor – Noise Figure
3. Shot Noise 13. Noise Figure / Factor for Active
4. Low Frequency or Flicker Noise Elements
5. Excess Resister Noise 14. Noise Temperature
6. Burst or Popcorn Noise 15. Noise Figure / Factors for Passive
7. General Comments Elements
8. Noise Evaluation – Overview 16. Review – Noise Factor / Figure /
9. Analysis of Noise in Communication Temperature
Systems 17. Cascaded Networks
• Thermal Noise 18. System Noise Figure
• Noise Voltage Spectral Density 19. System Noise Temperature
• Resistors in Series 20. Algebraic Representation of Noise
• Resistors in Parallel 21. Additive White Gaussian Noise
10.Matched Communication Systems

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 1. Introduction
Noise is a general term which is used to describe an unwanted signal
which affects a wanted signal. These unwanted signals arise from a
variety of sources which may be considered in one of two main
categories:-

•Interference, usually from a human source (man made)

•Naturally occurring random noise

Interference

Interference arises for example, from other communication systems

(cross talk), 50 Hz supplies (hum) and harmonics, switched mode
power supplies, thyristor circuits, ignition (car spark plugs) motors
… etc.
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 1. Introduction

Internal:
• It is due to random movement of electrons in electronic circuits
• Major sources are resistors, diodes, transistors etc.
• Thermal noise or Johnson noise and shot noise are examples.

External:
• Man- made and natural resources
• Sources over which we have no control
• Examples are Motors, generators, atmospheric sources.

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 1. Introduction

Noise level in system is proportional to

• Temperature and bandwidth
• Amount of current
• Gain of circuit
• Resistance of circuit

Effect of noise
• Degrades system performance (Analog and digital)
• Receiver cannot distinguish signal from noise
• Efficiency of communication system reduces

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 1. Introduction (Cont’d)
Natural Noise
Naturally occurring external noise sources include atmosphere disturbance
(e.g. electric storms, lighting, ionospheric effect etc), so called ‘Sky Noise’
or Cosmic noise which includes noise from galaxy, solar noise and ‘hot
spot’ due to oxygen and water vapour resonance in the earth’s atmosphere.

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 2. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise)
This type of noise is generated by all resistances (e.g. a resistor,
semiconductor, the resistance of a resonant circuit, i.e. the real part of the
impedance, cable etc).

Experimental results (by Johnson) and theoretical studies (by Nyquist) give
the mean square noise voltage as _ 2
V  4 k TBR (volt 2 )
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 Joules per K
T = absolute temperature
B = bandwidth noise measured in (Hz)
R = resistance (ohms) 7
 2. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Cont’d)
The law relating noise power, N, to the temperature and bandwidth is

N = k TB watts

Thermal noise is often referred to as ‘white noise’ because it has a

uniform ‘spectral density’.

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 2. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Cont’d)
PSD of thermal noise (𝑓) is (𝑓)=𝑘𝑇 / 2
( where k is Boltzman’s constant and T is temperature)
kT is denoted by N0
Then (𝑓)=𝑁0 / 2

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 3. Shot Noise

Determination of Noise level

• Signal to noise level ratio (SNR)

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 3. Shot Noise

Determination of Noise level

2. Noise temperature

Equivalent noise temperature is not the physical temperature of amplifier, but a theoretical
construct, that is an equivalent temperature that produces that amount of noise power
𝑇eq = T0 (𝐹−1)
3. Noise figure of cascaded stages

FRIIS formula for calculating total noise factor of several cascaded amplifiers
𝑭𝟐 − 𝟏 𝑭𝟑 − 𝟏
𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 + + +⋯
𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐
𝐹1, 𝐹2,−− & 𝐺1,𝐺2, 𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 Noise figure and gains of different stages in cascade.
Note that noise figure is mainly dominated by first two stages.

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Effect of Noise on AM Systems:
• The channel introduces additive noise in message and thus message received becomes corrupted.
• Figure of merit is defined

• Modulation system with higher γ has better noise performance.

• Total noise= Noise power spectral density × Bandwidth
𝐍
• N= 𝟎 × W
𝟐
• Noise amplitude is having Gaussian distribution i.e. additive white Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
• For AM-SC For both DSB and SSB γ = 1
• Thus S/N ratios at input and output of detector are identical i.e. no improvement is S/N ratio
 3. Shot Noise
• Shot noise was originally used to describe noise due to random
fluctuations in electron emission from cathodes in vacuum tubes
(called shot noise by analogy with lead shot).
• Shot noise also occurs in semiconductors due to the liberation of
charge carriers.
• For pn junctions the mean square shot noise current is
I n2  2I DC  2 I o  qe B (amps) 2
Where
is the direct current as the pn junction (amps)
is the reverse saturation current (amps)
is the electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
B is the effective noise bandwidth (Hz)

• Shot noise is found to have a uniform spectral density as for thermal

noise 13
 4. Low Frequency or Flicker Noise

Active devices, integrated circuit, diodes, transistors etc also exhibits

a low frequency noise, which is frequency dependent (i.e. non
uniform) known as flicker noise or ‘one – over – f’ noise.

5. Excess Resistor Noise

Thermal noise in resistors does not vary with frequency, as previously
noted, by many resistors also generates as additional frequency
dependent noise referred to as excess noise.
6. Burst Noise or Popcorn Noise
Some semiconductors also produce burst or popcorn noise with a
2

spectral density which is proportional to  1 f 

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 7. General Comments

For frequencies below a few KHz (low frequency systems), flicker

and popcorn noise are the most significant, but these may be ignored
at higher frequencies where ‘white’ noise predominates.

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Random Processes
• a random process can be viewed as a random experiment where the
outcome of each trial is a waveform that is a function of time.
• The collection of all possible waveforms is the ensemble of the
random process.
• Two averages exist for random processes.
• Time Average
• For a specific waveform, one could find the time average, defined as
Random Processes
• Ensemble Average
• Alternatively, one could pick a specific time and average across all
sample functions of the process at that time. This would give the
ensemble average
• Random processes for which the time-average and the ensemble-
average are identical are called ergodic processes.

• For a zero-mean process, the variance is equivalent to the average

power.
Autocorrelation and Power Spectral Density
Autocorrelation
• The frequency content of a process depends on how rapidly the
amplitude changes as a function of time.
• This can be measured by correlating the amplitudes at times t1 and
t2.
• Define the autocorrelation of a real random process as
Power Spectral Density
• Power spectral density (PSD) is a function that measures the
distribution of power of a random signal with frequency.
• PSD is only defined for stationary signals
Wiener-Khinchine Theorem
• The power spectral density of a random process is defined as the
Fourier transform of the autocorrelation:

• the average power of a random process can be found by integrating

the PSD over all frequencies:
 8. Noise Evaluation
The essence of calculations and measurements is to determine the
signal power to Noise power ratio, i.e. the (S/N) ratio or (S/N)
expression in dB.  S  S
  
  ratio N
N
 S   S 
   10 log 10  
 N  dB N
Also recall that
 S ( mW ) 
S dBm  10 log 10  
 1 mW 
 N ( mW ) 
and N dBm  10 log 10  
 1mW 
 S 
i.e.   10 log 10 S  10 log 10 N
 N  dB
 S 
   S dBm  N dBm
 N  dB
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 8. Noise Evaluation (Cont’d)

The probability of amplitude of noise at any frequency or in any band

of frequencies (e.g. 1 Hz, 10Hz… 100 KHz .etc) is a Gaussian
distribution.

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 8. Noise Evaluation (Cont’d)
Noise may be quantified in terms of
noise power spectral density, po watts per
Hz, from which Noise power N may be
expressed as
N= po Bn watts
Ideal low pass filter
Bandwidth B Hz = Bn
N= po Bn watts
Practical LPF
3 dB bandwidth shown, but noise does not suddenly cease
at B3dB
Therefore, Bn > B3dB, Bn depends on actual filter.
N= p0 Bn
In general the equivalent noise bandwidth is > B3dB.
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 9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems

Thermal Noise (Johnson noise)

This thermal noise may be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown below
____
V  4 k TBR (volt 2 )
2

(mean square value , power)

then VRMS = V____2  2 kTBR Vn
i.e. Vn is the RMS noise voltage.

A) System BW = B Hz
N= Constant B (watts) = KB
B) System BW
N= Constant 2B (watts) = K2B

For A, S  S For B, S  S
N KB N K 2B

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 9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems (Cont’d)

Resistors in Series
Assume that R1 at
temperature T1 and R2 at
temperature T2, then
____ ___ ___
V V V
2 2 2
n n1 n2
____
 4 k T1 B R1
2
V n1
____
Vn 2  4 k T2 B R2
2

____
 V  4 k B (T1 R1  T2 R2 )
2
n
____
 4 kT B ( R1  R2 )
2
Vn

i.e. The resistor in series at same temperature behave as a

single resistor 28
 9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems (Cont’d)

Resistance in Parallel
R2 R1
Vo1 Vn1 Vo 2  Vn 2
R1  R2 R1  R2

____ ___ ___

V V V
2 2 2
n o1 o2

R R 
R 
____
4kB
V 
2 2
T1 R1R12 T2 R2   1 2 
n R1  R2 2 2
 R1 R2 

_____
4kB R1 R2 (T1 R1 T2 R2 )
V 2

n
R1  R2 2
_____
 RR 
V 2
 4kTB  1 2 
 R1  R2 
n

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 10. Matched Communication Systems
In communication systems we are usually concerned
with the noise (i.e. S/N) at the receiver end of the system.
The transmission path may be for example:-

Or

An equivalent circuit, when the line is connected to the receiver is shown below.

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10. Matched Communication Systems (Cont’d)

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 11. Signal to Noise
The signal to noise ratio is given by
S Signal Power

N Noise Power
The signal to noise in dB is expressed by
S S
  dB 10 log 10  
N N
 S 
  dB S dBm  N dBm for S and N measured in mW.
N

12. Noise Factor- Noise Figure

Consider the network shown below,

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 12. Noise Factor- Noise Figure (Cont’d)
• The amount of noise added by the network is embodied in the
Noise Factor F, which is defined by
S N 
S N 
IN
Noise factor F =
OUT

• F equals to 1 for noiseless network and in general F > 1. The

noise figure in the noise factor quoted in dB
i.e. Noise Figure F dB = 10 log10 F F ≥ 0 dB

• The noise figure / factor is the measure of how much a network

degrades the (S/N)IN, the lower the value of F, the better the
network.
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 13. Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements

For active elements with power gain G>1, we have

S N 
= S IN N OUT SOUT  G S IN
S N 
IN
F= But
OUT
N IN S OUT
Therefore
S IN N OUT N
F  OUT
N IN G S IN G N IN
Since in general F v> 1 , then NOUT is increased by noise due to the active element i.e.

Na represents ‘added’ noise measured at the output. This added noise may be referred to the
input as extra noise, i.e. as equivalent diagram is

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13. Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements (Cont’d)

Ne is extra noise due to active elements referred to the input; the element is thus
effectively noiseless.

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14. Noise Temperature

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15. Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Passive Elements

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16. Review of Noise Factor – Noise Figure –Temperature

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 17. Cascaded Network
A receiver systems usually consists of a number of passive or active elements connected in
series. A typical receiver block diagram is shown below, with example

In order to determine the (S/N) at the input, the overall receiver noise figure or noise
temperature must be determined. In order to do this all the noise must be referred to the same
point in the receiver, for example to A, the feeder input or B, the input to the first amplifier.

Te or N e is the noise referred to the input.

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 18. System Noise Figure
Assume that a system comprises the elements shown below,

Assume that these are now cascaded and connected to an aerial at the input, with N IN  N ae
from the aerial.

Now , N OUT  G3 N IN 3  N e3 
 G3 N IN 3  F3  1 N IN 
Since N IN 3  G2 N IN 2  Ne 2   G2 N IN 2  F2  1N IN 

similarly N IN 2  G1  N ae  F1  1N IN 

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 18. System Noise Figure (Cont’d)
N OUT  G3 G2 G1 N ae  G1 F1  1N IN   G2 F2  1N IN   G3 F3  1N IN
The overall system Noise Factor is
N OUT N OUT
Fsys  
GN IN G1G2 G3 N ae
N IN F2  1 N IN F3  1 N IN
 1 F1  1  
N ae G1 N ae G1G2 N ae

F2  1 F3  1 F4  1 Fn  1

Fsys  F1     ........... 
G1 G1G2 G1G2 G3 G1G2 ..........Gn1
The equation is called FRIIS Formula.
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19. System Noise Temperature

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 20. Algebraic Representation of Noise
Phasor Representation of Signal and Noise
The general carrier signal VcCosWct may be represented as a phasor at any instant
in time as shown below:

If we now consider a carrier with a noise voltage with “peak” value superimposed we
may represents this as:

Both Vn and  n are random variables, the above phasor diagram represents a snapshot
at some instant in time.

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 20. Algebraic Representation of Noise (Cont’d)
We may draw, for a single instant, the phasor with noise resolved into 2 components, which
are:
a) x(t) in phase with the carriers
x(t ) Vn Cos n
b) y(t) in quadrature with the carrier
y(t ) Vn Sin n

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20. Algebraic Representation of Noise (Cont’d)

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20. Algebraic Representation of Noise (Cont’d)

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 20. Algebraic Representation of Noise (Cont’d)
Considering the general phasor representation below:-

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20. Algebraic Representation of Noise (Cont’d)

 Vn 
 Sin  n t 
From the diagram  Vn Sin n t 
 tan 1  
Vc
  tan 
1

 
 Vc  Vn Cos n t  1
Vn
Cos n t 
 V c 

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 21. Additive White Gaussian Noise
Additive
Noise is usually additive in that it adds to the information bearing signal. A model of the
received signal with additive noise is shown below

White

White noise = po  f  = Constant

Gaussian

We generally assume that noise voltage amplitudes have a Gaussian or Normal distribution.
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