Vector Calculus
16
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The Divergence Theorem
16.9
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
The Divergence Theorem
We write Green’s Theorem in a vector version as
where C is the positively oriented boundary curve of the
plane region D.
If we were seeking to extend this theorem to vector fields
on we might make the guess that
where S is the boundary surface of the solid region E. 3
The Divergence Theorem
It turns out that Equation 1 is true, under appropriate
hypotheses, and is called the Divergence Theorem.
Notice its similarity to Green’s Theorem and Stokes’
Theorem in that it relates the integral of a derivative of a
function (div F in this case) over a region to the integral of
the original function F over the boundary of the region.
We state the Divergence Theorem for regions E that are
simultaneously of types 1, 2, and 3 and we call such
regions simple solid regions. (For instance, regions
bounded by ellipsoids or rectangular boxes are simple solid
regions.)
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The Divergence Theorem
The boundary of E is a closed surface, and we use the
convention, that the positive orientation is outward; that is,
the unit normal vector n is directed outward from E.
Thus the Divergence Theorem states that, under the given
conditions, the flux of F across the boundary surface of E is
equal to the triple integral of the divergence of F over E. 5
Example 1
Find the flux of the vector field F(x, y, z) = z i + y j + x k
over the unit sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1.
Solution:
First we compute the divergence of F:
The unit sphere S is the boundary of the unit ball B given
by x2 + y2 + z2 1.
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Example 1 – Solution cont’d
Thus the Divergence Theorem gives the flux as
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The Divergence Theorem
Let’s consider the region E that lies between the closed
surfaces S1 and S2, where S1 lies inside S2. Let n1 and n2
be outward normals of S1 and S2.
Then the boundary surface of E is S = S1 U S2 and its
normal n is given by n = –n1 on S1 and n = n2 on S2.
(See Figure 3.)
Figure 3
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The Divergence Theorem
Applying the Divergence Theorem to S, we get
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Example 3
We considered the electric field:
where the electric charge Q is located at the origin and
is a position vector.
Use the Divergence Theorem to show that the electric flux
of E through any closed surface S2 that encloses the origin
is
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Example 3 – Solution
The difficulty is that we don’t have an explicit equation for
S2 because it is any closed surface enclosing the origin.
The simplest such surface would be a sphere, so
we let S1 be a small sphere with radius a and center the
origin. You can verify that div E = 0.
Therefore Equation 7 gives
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Example 3 – Solution cont’d
The point of this calculation is that we can compute the
surface integral over S1 because S1 is a sphere. The
normal vector at x is x/|x|.
Therefore
since the equation of S1 is |x| = a.
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Example 3 – Solution cont’d
Thus we have
This shows that the electric flux of E is 4εQ through any
closed surface S2 that contains the origin. [This is a special
case of Gauss’s Law for a single charge. The relationship
between ε and ε0 is ε =1/(4ε0).]
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The Divergence Theorem
Another application of the Divergence Theorem occurs in
fluid flow. Let v(x, y, z) be the velocity field of a fluid with
constant density . Then F = v is the rate of flow per unit
area.
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The Divergence Theorem
If P0(x0, y0, z0) is a point in the fluid and Ba is a ball with
center P0 and very small radius a, then div F(P) ≈ div F(P0)
for all points in Ba since div F is continuous. We
approximate the flux over the boundary sphere Sa as
follows:
This approximation becomes better as a 0 and suggests
that
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The Divergence Theorem
Equation 8 says that div F(P0) is the net rate of outward flux
per unit volume at P0. (This is the reason for the name
divergence.)
If div F(P) > 0, the net flow is outward near P and P is
called a source.
If div F(P) < 0, the net flow is inward near P and P is called
a sink.
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The Divergence Theorem
For the vector field in Figure 4, it appears that the vectors
that end near P1 are shorter than the vectors that start
near P1.
Figure 4
The vector field F = x2 i + y2 j
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The Divergence Theorem
Thus the net flow is outward near P1, so div F(P1) > 0 and
P1 is a source. Near P2, on the other hand, the incoming
arrows are longer than the outgoing arrows.
Here the net flow is inward, so div F(P2) < 0 and P2 is a
sink.
We can use the formula for F to confirm this impression.
Since F = x2 i + y2 j, we have div F = 2x + 2y, which is
positive when y > –x. So the points above the line y = –x
are sources and those below are sinks.
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