THREE-PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR
Part-1
 Classification of AC MOTORS
Different ac motors may be classified and divided into various
groups from the following different points of view:

1. AS REGARDS THEIR PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

2. AS REGRDS THE TYPE OF CURRENT

3. AS REGARDS THEIR SPEED

4. AS REGARDS THEIR STRUCTURAL FEATURES

AS REGARDS THEIR PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
(A) Synchronous Motors:
(i) Plain and (ii) Super -

(B) Asynchronous Motors

(a) Induction Motors
(i) Squirrel Cage: Single, Double
(ii) Slip-ring (external resistance)
(b) Commutator Motors
(i) Series: Single phase, Universal
(ii) Compensated: Conductively, Inductively
(iii) Shunt: Simple, Compensated
(iv) Repulsion: Straight, Compensated
(v) Repulsion-Start-Induction
(vi) Repulsion Induction
AS REGRDS THE TYPE OF CURRENT (i) Single phase and
(ii) Three phase

(i) Constant
AS REGARDS THEIR SPEED
(ii) Variable
(iii) Adjustable

AS REGARDS THEIR STRUCTURAL FEATURES

(i) Open (ii) Enclosed

(iii) Semi-enclosed (iv) Ventilated
(v) Pipe-Ventilated (vi) Riverted frame eye etc.
 Induction Motor: General Principle
In a general rule, conversion of electric power into mechanical power
takes place in the rotating part of an electric motor.
In DC motors, the electric power is conducted directly to the
armature (i.e. rotating part) through brushes and commutator. Hence,
in this sense, a DC motor can be called a conduction motor.
However, in AC motors, the rotor does not receive electric power by
conduction but by induction in exactly the same way as the
secondary of a 2-winding transformer receives its power from the
primary. That is why such motors are known as induction motors.
In fact, an induction motor can be treated as a rotating transformer
i.e. one in which primary winding is stationary but the secondary is
free to rotate.
Of all the AC motors, the polyphase induction motor is the one
which is extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives.
 Advantages:

1. It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost

unbreakable construction (especially squirrel-cage type).
2. Its cost is low and it is very reliable.
3. It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running
condition, no brushes are needed, hence frictional losses are
reduced. It has a reasonably good power factor.
4. It requires minimum of maintenance.
5. It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and
has not to be synchronized. Its starting arrangement is simple
especially for squirrel-cage type motor.
 Disadvantages:
1. Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its
efficiency.
2. Just like a DC shunt motor, its speed decreases with
increasing in load.
3. Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a DC
shunt motor.

Construction
An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts:
1. a stator and
2. a rotor.
 Stator
The stator is made up of a number of stampings, which are
slotted to receive the windings as shown in Fig. 32. 2.
The stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from 3-phase
supply.
It is wound for a definite number of, the exact number of poles
being determined by the requirements of speed.
Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa.

The stator windings, when supplied with 3-phase currents,

produce a magnetic flux, which is of constant magnitude but
which revolves (or rotate) at synchronous speed (given by
NS=120f/P).
This revolving magnetic flux induces an emf in the rotor by
mutual induction.
 Rotor
Squirrel-cage rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are
known as Squirrel-Cage induction motors.
Phase-wound or wound rotor: Motor
employing this type of rotor are variously
known as phase-wound motors or wound
motors or slip-ring motors.
Squirrel-cage rotor
This type of motor has the simplest and most rugged construction
imaginable and is almost indestructible.
The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel
slots for carrying the rotor conductors which consists of heavy bars
of copper, aluminium or alloys.
One bar is placed in each slot, rather the bars are inserted from the
end when semi-closed slots are used.
 The rotor bars are electrically welded or bolted to two heavy
and stout short-circuiting end-rings, thus giving us, what is so
picturesquely called, a squirrel-cage construction.
The rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on themselves;
hence it is not possible to add any external resistance in series with
the rotor circuit for starting purposes.
The rotor slots are usually not quite parallel to the shaft but are
purposely given a slight skew.
 Phase Wound Rotor
This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double layer,
distributed winding consisting of coils. *The rotor is wound far as
many poles as the number of stator poles and is always wound 3-
phase.*The three phases are starred internally.*The other three
winding terminals are brought out and connected to three
insulated slip-rings mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on
them.*These three brushes are further extremely connected to a
three-phase star-connected rheostat.*This connection makes
possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor
circuit during the starting period for increasing the starting torque
of the motor, and for changing its speed-torque/current
characteristics.* When running under normal conditions, the slip-
rings are automatically short-circuited. *It is seen that under
normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short-circuited on
itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.
The structural details of slip-ring motor are as under:
Frame: Made of close-grained alloy cast iron.
Stator and Rotor Core: Built from high-quality low-loss silicon steel laminations
and flash-enamelled on both sides.
Stator and Rotor Windings: Have moisture proof tropical insulation embodying
mica and high quality varnishes. Are carefully spaced for most effective air
circulation and are rigidly braced to withstand centrifugal forces and any short-
circuit stresses.
Air-gap: The stator rabbets and bore are machined carefully to ensure uniformity
or air-gap.
Shafts and Bearings: Ball and roller bearings are used to suit heavy duty, trouble-
free running and enhanced service life.
Fans: Light aluminium fans are used for adequate circulation of cooling air and
are securely keyed onto the rotor shaft.
Slip-rings and Slip-ring Enclosures: Slip-rings are made of high quality phosphor-
bronze and are of moulded construction.
 Comparison of squirrel-cage rotor with wound rotor of IM
1. The squirrel-cage rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core
with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors which are not
wires but consists of heavy bars of copper, aluminium or alloys.
The wound (or slip-ring) rotor are wound with the copper
conductors, usually insulated from the iron core, and are
connected in wye or delta connection.
2. In the case of squirrel-cage rotor bars are short-circuited by
end-rings. But in the cage of wound rotor, the 3-phase winding
are connected with 3 slip rings.
3. The squirrel-cage rotor construction is more rugged and simple
construction than the wound rotor construction.
4. The resistance of squirrel-cage rotor cannot be changed,
whereas the resistance of wound rotor can be changed by external
rheostat.
5. The starting torque of wound rotor is superior to the squirrel-
cage rotor.
 Production of Rotating Field

The resultant flux r, at any instant, is given by the vector sum of the
individual fluxes, 1, 2, and 3 due to three phases.
We will consider values of r at four instants 1/6th time-period apart
corresponding to points marked 0, 1, 2 and 3 in Fig, 32.12.
(i) when =0o i.e. corresponding to point 0, then
  0;   3 m;   3 m
1 2 2 3 2
3 60o
r  2 m cos  3  3 m  3 m 1.5m
2 2 2 2

(ii) when =60o i.e. corresponding to point 1, then

  3 m;    3 m;   0
1 2 2 2 3
r  2 3 m cos30o  3 m 1.5m
2 2
It has rotated clockwise through an angle of 60o.
(iii) when =120o i.e. corresponding to point 2, then
  3 m;   0;    3 m
1 2 2 3 2

It can be again prove that r  32 m 1.5m

But it has further rotated clockwise
through an angle 60o
(iv) when =180o i.e. corresponding to point 3, then
  0;   3  m;    3  m
1 2 2 3 2
The resultant is r 1.5m and has rotated clockwise through an
additional angle 60o or through an angle of 180o from the start.
We conclude that
1. The resultant flux is of constant value r =1.5m i.e. 1.5
times the maximum value of the flux due to any phase.
2. The resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous
speed given by NS=120f/P.

Fig. 32.15 shows the graph of the rotating flux in a simple way.
 Mathematical Proof
Taking the direction of flux due to phase 1 as reference direction,
we have   m(cos0o  j sin 0o )sin t;
1
  m (cos240o  j sin 240o )sin(t 120o );
2
  m (cos120o  j sin120o )sin(t 120o )
3

r  m(cos0o  j sin 0o )sin t  m(cos240o  j sin 240o )sin(t 120o )

 m(cos120o  j sin120o )sin(t 120o )

Expanding and adding the above equations, we get

r  3 m(sin t  j cost)  3 m90o t
2 2

The resultant flux is of constant magnitude and

does not change time ‘t’.
 Why Does the Rotor Rotate?
The reason why the rotor of an induction motor is set into rotation is
as follows:
When the 3-phase stator windings, are fed by a 3-phase supply then,
a magnetic flux of constant magnitude, but rotating at synchronous
speed, is set up.
The flux passes through the air-gap, sweep past the rotor surface and
so cuts the rotor conductors which, as yet, are stationary.
Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary
conductors, an emf is induced according to Faraday’s laws of electro-
magnetic induction. The frequency of the induced emf is the same as
the supply frequency.
Its magnitude is proportional to the relative velocity between the flux
and the conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-
Hand rule.
Since the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current
is produced whose direction, as given by Lenz’s law, is such as to
oppose the very cause producing it.
In this case, the cause which produces the rotor current is the relative
velocity between the rotating flux of the stator and the stationary rotor
conductors.
Hence, to reduce the relative speed the rotor starts running in the same
direction as that of the flux and tries to catch up with the rotating flux.

In the case of induction motor, the motor action can possibly occur at
the synchronous speed. For this reason, induction motor are classed
as asynchronous or nonsynchronous motor.
Synchronous Speed: The speed of rotation of the magnetic flux,
produced by or linking the primary (or stator) winding of a machine.
The setting up of the torque for rotating the
rotor is explained below:

In Fig. 32-16 (a)is shown the stator field which

is assumed to be rotating clockwise.
The relative motion of the rotor with respect to
the stator is anticlockwise. By applying Right-
Hand rule, the direction of the induced emf in
the rotor is found to be outwards. Hence, the
direction of the flux due to rotor current alone,
is as shown in Fig. 32.16(b).

Now, by applying the Left-Hand rule, or by the

effect of combined field as shown in Fig. 32.16
(c), it is clear that the rotor conductors
experience a force tending to rotate them in
clockwise direction. Hence, the rotor is set into
rotation in the same direction as that of the
stator flux (or field).
Fig. 32.16
 Slip
In practice, the rotor never succeeds in ‘catching up’ with the stator field.
If it really did so, then there would be no relative speed between the two, hence
no rotor emf no current and so on torque to maintain rotation.
That is why the rotor runs at a speed which is always less than the speed of the
stator field.
The difference in speeds depends upon the load on the motor.

The difference between the synchronous speed NS and the actual speed N of the
rotor is known as Slip speed.
And slip is the ratio of slip speed to the synchronous speed expressed either as a
decimal as as a percentage.
The terms ‘slip’ is descriptive of the way in which the rotor ‘slip backs’ from
synchronism.
N N NS-N is called the slip speed.
%slip s  S 100
N
S Rotor (or motor) speed is N=NS(1-s).
 Frequency of Rotor Current
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same
as the supply frequency.
But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends upon the
relative speed or on slip-speed.
Let at any slip-speed, the frequency of the rotor of the rotor current be fr or
f’. Then NS  N  120 f '  120 f r N  120 f
P P also S P
f '  f r  NS  N  s  f ' f  sf
Dividing one by the other, we get r
f f NS
As seen, rotor currents have a frequency f’=sf and when flowing through the
individual phases of rotor winding, give rise to rotor magnetic fields.
These individual rotor magnetic fields produce a combined rotating magnetic
field, whose speed relative to rotor is  120 f '  120 f r  120sf  sN
P P P S
Speed of the rotor field in space=speed of field relative to rotor + speed of the
rotor relative to space, i.e.  sN  N  sN  (1 s) N  N
S S S S
It means that no matter what the value of slip, rotor currents and stator currents
each produce a sinusoidaly distributed magnetic field of constant magnitude and
constant space speed of NS.
 Rotor EMF and Reactance Under Running Conditions

Let E2 = standstill rotor induced emf/phase

X2 = standstill rotor reactance/phase

f2= Rotor current frequency at standstill

When rotor is stationary i.e. s=1, the frequency of the rotor emf is the same as
that of he stator supply frequency.
The value of emf induced in the rotor at standstill is maximum because the
relative speed between the rotor and the revolving stator flux is maximum.
When rotor starts running, the relative speed between it and the rotating stator flux
is decreased.
Hence, the rotor induced emf which is directly proportional to this relative speed, is
also decreased.
Hence, for a slip s, the rotor induced emf will be s times the induced emf at
standstill.
Therefore, under running conditions Er=sE2.
The frequency of the induced emf will likewise become: fr=sf2.
Due to decrease in frequency of the rotor emf the rotor reactance
will also decrease. Xr=sX2
Where Er and Xr are rotor emf and reactance under running
conditions. Zr = R2 + jXr = R2 + j(sX2)

R2 R2 X sX
cosr   sin r  r  2
Zr [R ]2 [sX ]2 Zr [R ]2 [sX ]2
2 2 2 2
Zr  [R2]2 [sX 2]2  R2 cosr

Zr  [R2]2 [sX 2]2  X r sin r  sX 2sin r

At standstill condition s =1 thus Z2  [R2]2 [ X 2]2

R2 R2 X2 X2
cos2   sin 2  
Z2 [R ]2 [ X ]2 Z2 [R ]2 [ X ]2
2 2 2 2
Z2  R2cos2 Z2  X 2sin2

E2 E2 E2
I2    sin 2
Z2 [R ]2 [ X ]2 X 2
2 2
 E sE sE sE
Ir  r  2  2  2 sin r
Zr [R ]2 [ X ]2 [R ]2 [sX ]2 sX 2
2 r 2 2

When, r = 90o; Ir= E2/X2 maximum current = Imax

When, r = 45o; Ir= (1/2)Imax
When, r = oo; Ir= 0
 Power Stages in an Induction Motor
Stator iron loss (consisting of eddy and hysteresis losses) depends on the supply
frequency and the flux density in the iron core.
It is practically constant.
The iron loss of the rotor is, however, negligible because frequency of the rotor
currents under normal running conditions is always small.
Total rotor Cu loss = 3I2r2R2.
Different stages of power development in an induction motor are as under:
Power distribution diagram for an induction motor is given in below. A better
visual for power flow, within an induction motor is given in Fig. 32.38 [1].
 Torque Developed by an Induction Motor
An induction motor develops gross torque Tg due to gross rotor output Pm.
Its value can be expressed either in terms of rotor input P2 or rotor gross output Pm
as given below.
P P
Tg   2 ......in terms of rotor input and Ns is in rps
2
s 2Ns

P P
Tg  m  m ......in terms of rotor output and N is in rps
 2N

The shaft torque Tsh due to output power Pout which is less than Pm because of
rotor friction and windage losses.

Pout Pout
Tst 
  2N ......where, N is in rps
The difference between Tg and Tsh equals the torque lost due to
friction and windage losses in the motor.
In the above expressions, N and Ns are in rps. However, if they
are in rpm, the above expressions for motor torque become

P2 60 P2 P2
Tg    9.55 ......in terms of rotor input and N s is in rpm
2N s / 60 2 N s Ns

P
Tg  9.55 m ......in terms of rotor output and N is in rpm
N

P
Tst  9.55 out ......where, N is in rpm
N
 Torque, Mechanical Power and Rotor Output
Stator input, P1= Stator output + Stator Losses.
The stator output is transferred entirely inductively to the rotor circuit.
Obviously, rotor input, P2= Stator Output.
Rotor output, Pm= Rotor input R2 – Rotor Cu losses
This rotor output is converted into mechanical energy and gives rise to gross torque
Tg .
Out of this gross torque developed, some is lost due to windage and friction losses in
the rotor and the rest appears as the useful or shaft torque Tsh.
Let N rps be the actual speed of Tg  2N  Rotor gross output in watts, Pm
the rotor and Tg is in N-m, then
Rotor gross output in watts, Pm
Tg  Nm (1)
2N
If there were no Cu losses in the rotor, then
rotor output will equal input and the rotor will Rotor input, P
Tg  2 Nm (2)
run at synchronous speed. 2N s
From (1) and (2), we get, Rotor gross output, Pm  Tg    Tg  2N (3)

Rotor input, P2  Tg  s  Tg  2N s (4)

The difference of two (rotor input and rotor output) equals rotor Cu loss.
 Rotor Cu loss  P2  Pm  Tg  (s   )  Tg  2 ( N s  N )

Rotor Cu loss P2  Pm Tg  ( s   ) N s  N
From (3) and (4),    s
Rotor input P2 Tg  s Ns

 Rotor Cu loss  s  Rotor input  s  Power across air - gap  s  P2 (5)

Also, Rotor input  Rotor Cu loss/s

Rotor gross output, Pm  input P2  Rotor Cu loss  input P2  s  Rotorinput
Rotor gross output, Pm N
Pm  (1  s)  rotor input P2 (6) or,  1 s 
Rotor input, P2 Ns

N Rotor Cu loss s
 Rotor Efficiency  Also, 
Ns Rotor gross output 1  s
 Induction Motor Torque Equation
The gross torque Tg developed by an induction motor is given by
P2 60P2 P2
Tg  Ns in rps Tg   9.55 Ns in rpm
2Ns 2Ns Ns
Now, Rotor input, P2  Rotor Cu loss/ s  3Ir2R2 / s
  2   2
   
   
R  E R  sE
  R
P2  3Ir2 2  3 

r 2 3




2 

2
   
s R 2  X r2 s



 R 2  (sX )2




s

2 
 2 
 2 


sE 2R2 sK 2E 2R2
P2  3 2 3 1
R2  (sX 2)2 R2  (sX 2)2
2 2
K is voltage transformation ratio.
 sE2 R2
P2  3E2  3E2Ir cosr
R2  (sX 2)2 R2  (sX 2)2
2 2
P K1 3
Tg  2  3 E2Ir cosr Tg  K1E2Ir cosr
2πN s 2πN s 2πN s

K1 is called the constant of the given machine.

sE2 R2 sE 2R2
Tg  K1E2  K1 2
R2  (sX 2)2 R2  (sX 2)2 R2  (sX 2)2
2 2 2

TE2Ir cosr At standstillcondition: TE2I2cos2

 Relation Between Torque and Rotor Power Factor
We know that, Rotor input, P  E I cos
2 22 2
where, I2= rotor current at standstill
E2= rotor current at standstill
2 =angle between rotor emf and rotor current

Rotor input , P E I cos

Tg  2 N m  2 2 2 N m
2Ns 2Ns

Tg  E I cos
22 2
Tg  I cos E 
2 2 2
In the case of DC motor, the torque Ta is proportional to the
product of armature current and flux per pole i.e. TaIa.
But, in the case of an induction motor, the torque is also
proportional to the product of flux per stator pole and the
rotor current.
However, there is one more factor that has to be taken into
account i.e. the power factor of the rotor.

TI cos  T  kI cos 

2 2 2 2
Denoting rotor emf at standstill by E2. We have that E2
TE I cos T  k E I cos  where, k1 is another constant.
22 2 1 22 2

Rotor Assumed Non-inductive (or 2=0)

In this case, the rotor current I2
is in phase with the emf E2 induced
in the rotor (Fig. 32.17).
The instantaneous value of the
torque acting on each rotor
conductor is given by the product of
instantaneous value of the flux and
the rotor current.
Hence, torque curve is obtained
by plotting the products of flux  (or
flux density B) and I2.
It is seen that the torque is always
positive i.e. unidirectional.
Rotor Assumed inductive (or 20)
This case is shown in Fig. 32.18. Here I2 lags behind E2 by an angle 2=tan-1(X2/R2)
where R2=rotor resistance per phase; X2=rotor reactance/phase at standstill.
It is seen that for a portion ‘ab’ of the pole pitch, the torque is negative i.e.
reversed.
Hence, the total torque which is the difference of the forward and the backward
torques, is considerably reduced.
If 2=90o, Then the total torque is zero because in that case the backward and
the forward torques become equal and opposite.
 Starting Torque
The torque developed by the motor at the instant of starting is called starting torque.
In some cases, it is greater than the normal running torque, whereas in some other
cases it is somewhat less.
Let E2= rotor emf per phase at standstill
R2= rotor resistance/phase at standstill
X2= rotor reactance/phase at standstill
Z  R2  X 2
 Z2= rotor impedance/phase at standstill 2 2 2

E E R R
Then I  2  2
and cos2  Z 
2 2
2 Z R2  X 2
2 2 2 2 R2  X 2
2 2
Standstill or starting torque: Tst  k E I cos 
1 22 2
E R k E 2R
Tst  k E 2  2  1 2 2
1 2 R2  X 2 R2  X 2 R22  X 22
2 2 2 2
 If supply voltage V is constant, then the flux  and hence, E2 both are constant.
R R
Tst  k 2 k 2 where, k  k E 2 is another constant.
2 R2  X 2 2 Z 2 2 1 2
2 2 2
3 E 2R
Now, k1  2N Tst  3 2 2
S 2N R2  X 2
S 2 2

Starting Torque of a Squirrel-Cage Motor

The resistance of a squirrel-cage rotor is fixed and small as compared to its
reactance which is very large especially at the start because at standstill, the
frequency of the rotor currents equals the supply frequency.
Hence, the starting current I2 of the rotor, through very large in magnitude,
lags by a very large angle behind E2, with the result that the starting torque per
ampere is very poor.
It is very roughly 1.5 times the full-load torque, although the starting current
is 5 to 7 times the full-load current.
Hence, such motors are not useful where the motor has to start against
heavy loads.
 Starting Toque of a Slip-Ring Motor
The starting torque of such a motor is increased by
improving its power factor by adding external resistance in the
rotor circuit from the star-connected rheostat, the rheostat
resistance being progressively cut out as the motor gathers speed.
Addition of external resistance, however, increase the rotor
impedance and so reduces the rotor current.
At first, the effect of improved power factor predominates
the current-decreasing effect of impedance.
Hence, staring torque is increased.
But after a certain point, the effect of increased impedance
predominates the effect of improved power factor and so thee
torque starts decreasing.
 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque
If supply voltage V is constant, then the flux  and hence, E2 both are constant.
k R dTst R (2R )
Tst  2 2  k [ 1  2 2 ] 0
R X
2 2 dR 2 R2  X 2 (R2  X 2)2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 R (2R ) 2R2
 2 2 0 1 2 0
R2  X 2 (R2  X 2)2 R2  X 2
2 2 2 2 2 2

R  X
R2  X 2  2R2 2 2
2 2 2

It is seen that starting torque is maximum when the

rotor resistance equals rotor reactance.
Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Starting Torque
k E 2R
We have seen that Tst  1 2 2 Now E2 supply voltage V
R2  X 2
2 2
k V 2R k V 2R
Tst  3 2 3 2
where k3 is yet another constant.
R2  X 2 Z2
2 2 2
Hence, Tst V 2

Clearly, the torque is very sensitive to any changes in the

supply voltage.
A change of 5% is supply voltage, for example, will produce
a change of approximately 10% in the rotor torque.
This fact of importance in star-delta and auto transformer
starters.
Example 34.9 A 150 kW, 3000 V, 50 Hz, 6 poles star-connected induction motor
has a star-connected slip-ring rotor with a transformation ratio of 3.6 (stator/rotor).
The rotor resistance is 0.1 /phase and its per phase leakage reactance is 3.61 mH.
The stator impedance may be neglected. Find the staring current and starting torque
on rated voltage with short-circuited slip-rings.
Solution: X  2 503.61103 1.13
2
K=1/3.6, R'  R / K 2  (3.6)2 0.11.3
2 2
X '  X / K 2  (3.6)2 1.13 14.7
2 2

I st  V  V  3000/ 3 117.4 A
Z (R' )2  ( X ' )2 (1.3)2  (14.7)2
2 2

3 V 2 R' 3 (3000/ 3)2 1.3  513N  m

Now, Tst  2 
2N (R' )2  ( X ' )2 2(503 (1.3)2  (14.7)2
S 2 2