Introduction to Circuits

Saiful Hasan
IoT Engineer

Let’s stick to the very basic!!!

• Part B:
• Pull up resistor.
• Pull down resistor.
• Switching circuit.

• Part C:
• Current Amplification.
• Optical Isolation.
Part A
• Active Devices
The devices (or precisely components) which can control the
current flow can be termed as Active Devices.
• They require some input power supply to get into conduction.
• The working of these components define the behavior of the
circuit.
• Ex − Diodes, transistors etc.
Part A
• Passive Devices
The devices (or precisely components) which cannot control the
current flow can be termed as Passive Devices.
• They don’t require input power supply to work.
• The working of these components slightly alters the circuit’s
behavior.
• Ex − Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc.
Part A
• Voltage Divider Rule:
• There are two important parts to the voltage divider: the circuit and the equation.
• The Circuit
A voltage divider involves applying a voltage source across a series of two resistors. You may see
it drawn a few different ways, but they should always essentially be the same circuit.
• We’ll call the resistor closest to the input voltage (Vin) R1, and the resistor closest to ground R2. The voltage drop across R2 is
called Vout, that’s the divided voltage our circuit exists to make.
• That’s all there is to the circuit! Vout is our divided voltage. That’s what’ll end up being a fraction of the input voltage.
Part A
• Voltage Divider Rule:
• The Equation
The voltage divider equation assumes that you know three values of the above circuit: the input
voltage (Vin), and both resistor values (R1 and R2). Given those values, we can use this equation to
find the output voltage (Vout):
𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

• This equation states that the output voltage is directly proportional to the input voltage and
the ratio of R1 and R2. If you’d like to find out where this comes from, check out this section where
the equation is derived. But for now, just write it down and remember it!
Part A
• Problem to Solve:

• Problem 1
• Let Vin = 12V, R1=1kΩ, and R2=3kΩ
• Find Vout, the voltage across R2
Part A
• Applications???
• Potentiometers
• A potentiometer is a variable resistor which can be used to create an adjustable voltage
divider.
• Reading Resistive Sensors.
• Many sensors in the real world are simple resistive devices. A photocell is a variable resistor,
which produces a resistance proportional to the amount of light it senses. Other devices
like flex sensors, force-sensitive resistors, and thermistors, are also variable resistors.
• Level Shifting.
• an ADXL345 accelerometer allows for a maximum input voltage of 3.3V, so if you try to
interface it with an Arduino (assume operating at 5V), something will need to be done to step
down that 5V signal to 3.3V. Voltage divider! All that’s needed is a couple resistors whose
ratio will divide a 5V signal to about 3.3V.
Part A
• Current Divider Formula:
• A parallel circuit is often called a current divider for its ability
to proportion—or divide—the total current into fractional
parts
• The Circuit
• To understand what this means, let’s first analyze a simple parallel circuit, determining the
branch currents through individual resistors:
Part A
• Current Divider Formula:
• The Equation
The Current divider equation assumes that you know four values of the above circuit: the input
voltage (Vin), and both resistor values (R1, R2 and R3). Given those values, we can use this
equation to find the output voltage (Vout):
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐼3 = 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
R3

Here,
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Part A
• Problem to Solve:

• Problem 2
• Let Iin = 6A, R1=10Ω, R2=50kΩ & R3=100 kΩ
• Find Iout, the voltage across R2 ???
Part B
• Pull Up Resistor:
• Pull-up resistors are very common when using microcontrollers (MCUs) or any digital logic device. This tutorial
will explain when and where to use pull-up resistors, then we will do a simple calculation to show why pull-
ups are important.
• What is a Pull-up Resistor:
• To prevent this unknown state (floating), a pull-up or pull-down resistor will ensure that the pin is in either a
high or low state, while also using a low amount of current.
• Pull-ups are often used with buttons and switches.
Part B
• Pull Down Resistor:
• A pull-down resistor works in the same way but is connected to ground. It holds the logic signal near zero
volts when no other active device is connected..
• What is a Pull-up Resistor:
• The value of a pull down or pull up resistor will vary depending upon your specific devices involved.
• You generally want a large resistor value (10kΩ).
Part B
• Switching Circuit:
• One of the most elementary and easy-to-
overlook circuit component is the switch.
• Transistor Switch
• Let’s look at the most fundamental transistor-
switch circuit: an NPN switch. Here we use an
NPN to control a high-power LED:
Part B
• Switching Circuit:
• The series resistor between our
control source and the base limits
current into the base. The base-
emitter node can get its happy
voltage drop of 0.6V, and the resistor
can drop the remaining voltage. The
value of the resistor, and voltage
across it, will set the current.

Switch open Switch Closed