OPERATING SYSTEM

Lecture 1
 Computer System
Computer system can be divided into four components:
■ Hardware
– Provides basic computing resources
– CPU, memory, I/O devices
■ Operating system
– Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users
■ Application programs
– Define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing problems
– Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems etc.
■ Users
– People, machines and other computers
Computer System
 Batch Systems
■ In Batch processing same type of jobs are batch (BATCH- a set of jobs with similar
needs) together and execute at a time
■ Users did not interact directly with the computer systems, but he prepared a job
(comprising of the program, the data, & some control information)
■ The job was submitted to the computer operator by the programmer. At some later
time the output appeared
 Memory Layout
■ Resident monitor :
– initial control in monitor
– control transfers to job
– when job completes control transfers back to monitor

Operating
System

User
program
area
 Multi-Programmed Systems
■ Several jobs are kept in main memory at the Operating
same time, and the CPU is multiplexed among system
them
job1
■ Figure depicts the layout of multiprogramming
system job2
■ The main memory consists of 4 jobs at a time, the
CPU executes one by one job3

job4
 Multi-Programmed Systems
■ Example: Two process P1 and P2 with CPU and I/O bursts of one time unit each

CPU I/O
Burst Burst

P1
P2

P1
…
P2
 Multi-Programmed Systems
■ Advantages:
– Efficient memory utilization
– Throughput increases
– CPU is never idle, so performance increases.
 Time Sharing Systems
■ Time-sharing is a technique which enables many
people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time
■ Time sharing, or multitasking, is a logical extension of
multiprogramming
■ Processor's time which is simultaneously shared
among multiple users is termed as
time-sharing
■ The operating system uses CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small
portion of a time.
 Time Sharing Systems
■ Advantages:
– Provides the advantage of quick response
– Reduces CPU idle time
■ Disadvantages:
– Problem of reliability
– Question of security and integrity of user programs and data
 Distributed Systems
■ Distribute the computation among several physical processors.
■ Loosely coupled system – each processor has its own local memory; processors
communicate with one another through various communications lines, such as high
speed buses or telephone lines.
■ Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function.
■ These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
 Advantages of Distributed Systems
■ Resource Sharing
– With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another
■ Computational speedup
– Reduction of the load on the host computer
■ Reliability
– If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
■ Scalability
– Adds more computers
Clustered Systems
■ Use multiple CPUs to accomplished a task
■ Clustering allows two or more systems to share storage
■ Provides high reliability
– Asymmetric clustering: one server runs the application while other servers
standby
– Symmetric clustering: all N hosts are running the application
 Real-time Systems
■ A system that produce output far a given input within a well-defined time period, else
the output is useless.
■ Often used as a control device in dedicated application such as medical imaging
systems, industrial control system, plane landing system, process control in nuclear
power plant, etc.
 Real-time Systems
■ Real-time systems may be either hard or soft real-time
■ The hard real-time OS guarantee that critical tasks be completed within a certain
range of time
– Ex: aircraft control systems.
■ The soft real-time OS provides some relaxation in time limit
 Single-Processor System
■ Single-processor systems
– One CPU or one processing unit(a single core on a chip)
– They perform only one process at a given time, and it carries out the next
process in the queue only after the current process is completed
 Multiprocessor System
■ Multiprocessor systems
– Multiple processor or one processor with multiple core
– Process more than one program simultaneously
– Multiprocessor systems are also known as parallel or tightly- coupled system
 Multiprocessor System
■ Asymmetric Multiprocessing; Tasks are assigned to a specific CPU and each CPU
has its own RAM memory
■ Symmetric Multiprocessing; Tasks are assigned to any available CPU and CPU’s can
share RAM memory
■ Advantages include:
– Increased throughput
– Economy of scale
– Increased reliability
 What is an Operating System?
■ A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the
computer hardware
■ An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the
computer (main memory) by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a
computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs.
 Operating System Objectives
■ Convenience
– Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
– Make the computer system convenient to use
■ Efficiency
– Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
■ Ability to evolve
 Role of Operating System
■ Government
– Provides an environment for efficient use of its resources
■ Resource allocator
– Manages all resources
– Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair use of the resource
■ Control program
– Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the
computer
 Interrupts and Traps
■ Interrupt
– is a signal to the processor emitted by I/O devices indicating an event that
needs immediate attention from the operating system
– Interrupts are hardware generated
■ Trap
– an event generated by CPU to get attention of the operating system.
– Caused by an error or by a user request for an I/O operation
– It is also called software-generated interrupts
 Interrupts and Traps
■ In case of an interrupt or trap, CPU invokes a piece of code in the OS to service it,
known as interrupt service routine (ISR) or trap service routine (TSR)
■ When the CPU is interrupted/trap, it stops what it is doing and immediately transfers
execution to an address where the service routine for the interrupt/trap is located
■ In case of interrupt the OS preserves the state of the CPU but not in case of trap
Interrupts and Traps
 Operating System Modes
■ The operating system code and user-defined code must be distinguished to ensure
the proper execution of the operating system.
■ Computer system provides hardware support to differentiate between at least two
modes of operations.
– User mode: execution done on behalf of a user.
– kernel mode: (also called monitor mode or system mode) execution done on
behalf of operating system.
■ Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components.
■ When an interrupt or fault occurs, or a process execute a system call, CPU switches
to monitor mode.
 Dual-Mode Operation
■ Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the current mode: monitor (0) or
user (1).

■ Privileged instruction can be executed only in monitor mode.

 Dual-Mode Operation
■ System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user.
Entry Point into Kernel
 System Calls
■ System calls provide an interface between a user program and operating system
■ User process must not be given open access to the kernel code.
■ The system call interface layer contains entry point in the kernel code.
■ Any user or application request that involves access to any system resource must be
handled by the kernel code.
 Types of System Calls
■ Process Control
– These types of system calls are used to control the processes
– End, abort, load, execute Create process, terminate process etc.
■ File management
– These types of system calls are used to manage files
– Create file, delete file, open, close, read etc.
■ Device management
– These types of system calls are used to manage devices
– Request device, release device, read, write etc.
 Types of System Calls
■ Information maintenance
– These types of system calls are used to maintain information
– Get time or date, set time or date, get system data, set system data etc.
■ communications
– These types of system calls are used for communication
– Create, delete communication connection, send, receive messages etc.
 Operating System Components
■ Process management
■ Memory management
■ Device Management
■ File Management
■ Storage management
■ Protection and security
 Process Management
■ A process is a program in execution.
– Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
■ A process needs resources to accomplish its task.
– CPU, memory, I/O, files, initialization data, ....
 Process Management
■ Process management activities:
– Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs.
– Creating and deleting processes.
– Suspending and resuming processes.
– Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
– Providing mechanisms for process communication.
 Memory Management

■ To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory.

■ All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory.
■ Memory management determines what is in memory and when.
 Memory Management
■ Memory management activities:
– Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom.
– Deciding which processes (or parts of) and data to move into and out of
memory.
– Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed.
 Device Management
■ An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It
does the following activities for device management:
– Keeps tracks of all devices. The program responsible for this task is known as
the I/O controller.
– Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
– Allocates the device in the most efficient way.
– De-allocates devices.
 Storage Management
■ Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that must
be kept for a long period of time.

■ Disk management activities:

– Free-space management
– Storage allocation
– Disk scheduling
 File Management
■ A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. An
Operating System does the following activities for file management:
– Creating and deleting files and directories.
– Mapping files onto secondary storage.
– Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media.
 Protection and Security
■ Protection: any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to resources
defined by the OS.
– I/O Protection
– Memory Protection
– CPU protection
■ Security: defense of the system against internal and external attacks.
– E.g., denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service, ...
 I/O Protection
■ All I/O instruction are privileged instruction.
■ Must ensure that a user process could never gain control of the computer in monitor
mode.
 Memory Protection
■ Region in the main memory that a process can legally access is known as its
address space.
■ Must provide memory protection outside the address space of a process.
■ In order to have memory protection, add two register that determine the range of
legal addresses a program may access.
– Base register: holds the smallest legal physical memory address.
– Limit register: contains the size of the range.
Use of Base and limit Register
Hardware Support
 CPU Protection
■ Timer and a fixed-interval clock that interrupts the CPU periodically.
– Timer is loaded with a value and decremented every clock tick.
– When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs and an ISR is executed to
switch CPU to another process.
■ Load-timer is a privileged instruction.
 Operating System Services
■ OS provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.
■ User interface
– Command-line interface (CLI)
– Graphical user interface (GUI)
■ Program execution
– The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run that
program
– The program must be able to end its execution, either normally or abnormally
(indicating error).
 Operating System Services
■ I/O operations
– A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or an I/O device
– For efficiency and protection, users usually cannot control I/O devices directly.
– Therefore, the operating system must provide a means to do I/O.
■ File System Manipulation
– OS provides an interface to the user to read, write create and delete files
– OS provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
 Operating System Services
■ Communication between processes
– OS provides the facility for exchanging the information between processes that
are executing on the same computer or on completely different computers
– Communications may be implemented via shared memory or message passing
■ Error detection and handling
– OS provides the facility of error detection and response
– Error detection occur both hardware and software levels
 Operating System Services
Services for efficient system operation
■ Resource allocation
– It is the ability to allocate resources to multiple users or to multiple jobs
running at same time
■ Accounting
– It is the ability to keep track of and to record which users use how much and
what kinds of computer resources
■ Protection
– It is the ability to ensure that all access to system resources is controlled