Counting

Chapter 6

With Question/Answer Animations

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 Chapter Summary
The Basics of Counting
The Pigeonhole Principle
Permutations and Combinations
Binomial Coefficients and Identities
Generalized Permutations and Combinations
Generating Permutations and Combinations (not yet
included in overheads)

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 The Basics of Counting
Section 6.1

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 Section Summary 1

The Product Rule

The Sum Rule
The Subtraction Rule
The Division Rule
Examples, Examples, and Examples
Tree Diagrams

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 Basic Counting Principles:
The Product Rule
The Product Rule: A procedure can be broken
down into a sequence of two tasks. There are n1
ways to do the first task and n2 ways to do the
second task. Then there are n1∙n2 ways to do the
procedure.
Example: How many bit strings of length seven
are there?
Solution: Since each of the seven bits is either a
0 or a 1, the answer is 27 = 128.
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 The Product Rule
Example: How many different license plates can be
made if each plate contains a sequence of three
uppercase English letters followed by three digits?
Solution: By the product rule,
there are 26 ∙ 26 ∙ 26 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 ∙ 10 = 17,576,000
different possible license plates.

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 Counting Functions
Counting Functions: How many functions are there from a set
with m elements to a set with n elements?
Solution: Since a function represents a choice of one of the n
elements of the codomain for each of the m elements in the
domain, the product rule tells us that there are n ∙ n ∙ ∙ ∙ n = nm
such functions.
Counting One-to-One Functions: How many one-to-one
functions are there from a set with m elements to one with n
elements?
Solution: Suppose the elements in the domain are
a1, a2,…, am. There are n ways to choose the value of a1 and n−1
ways to choose a2, etc. The product rule tells us that there are
n(n−1) (n−2)∙∙∙(n−m +1) such functions.
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 Telephone Numbering Plan
Example: The North American numbering plan (NANP) specifies that a telephone number
consists of 10 digits, consisting of a three-digit area code, a three-digit office code, and a
four-digit station code. There are some restrictions on the digits.
• Let X denote a digit from 0 through 9.
• Let N denote a digit from 2 through 9.
• Let Y denote a digit that is 0 or 1.
• In the old plan (in use in the 1960s) the format was NYX-NNX-XXXX.
• In the new plan, the format is NXX-NXX-XXXX.
How many different telephone numbers are possible under the old plan and the new
plan?
Solution: Use the Product Rule.
• There are 8 ∙2 ∙10 = 160 area codes with the format NYX.
• There are 8 ∙10 ∙10 = 800 area codes with the format NXX.
• There are 8 ∙8 ∙10 = 640 office codes with the format NNX.
• There are 10 ∙10 ∙10 ∙10 = 10,000 station codes with the format XXXX.
Number of old plan telephone numbers: 160 ∙640 ∙10,000 = 1,024,000,000.
Number of new plan telephone numbers: 800 ∙800 ∙10,000 = 6,400,000,000.
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 Counting Subsets of a Finite Set
Counting Subsets of a Finite Set: Use the product rule to
show that the number of different subsets of a finite set S
is 2|S|. (In Section 5.1, mathematical induction was used
to prove this same result.)
Solution: When the elements of S are listed in an
arbitrary order, there is a one-to-one correspondence
between subsets of S and bit strings of length |S|. When
the ith element is in the subset, the bit string has a 1 in
the ith position and a 0 otherwise.
By the product rule, there are 2|S| such bit strings, and
therefore 2|S| subsets.
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 Product Rule in Terms of Sets
If A1, A2, … , Am are finite sets, then the number of
elements in the Cartesian product of these sets is the
product of the number of elements of each set.
The task of choosing an element in the Cartesian
product A1 ⨉ A2 ⨉ ∙∙∙ ⨉ Am is done by choosing an
element in A1, an element in A2 , …, and an element
in Am.
By the product rule, it follows that:

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 DNA and Genomes
A gene is a segment of a DNA molecule that encodes a particular protein
and the entirety of genetic information of an organism is called its
genome.
DNA molecules consist of two strands of blocks known as nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is composed of bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine
(G), or thymine (T).
The DNA of bacteria has between 105 and 107 links (one of the four
bases). Mammals have between 108 and 1010 links. So, by the product
rule there are at least 4105 different sequences of bases in the DNA of
bacteria and 4108 different sequences of bases in the DNA of mammals.
The human genome includes approximately 23,000 genes, each with
1,000 or more links.
Biologists, mathematicians, and computer scientists all work on
determining the DNA sequence (genome) of different organisms.

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 Basic Counting Principles:
The Sum Rule
The Sum Rule: If a task can be done either in one of n1
ways or in one of n2, where none of the set of n1 ways is
the same as any of the n2 ways, then there are n1 + n2
ways to do the task.
Example: The mathematics department must choose
either a student or a faculty member as a representative
for a university committee. How many choices are there
for this representative if there are 37 members of the
mathematics faculty and 83 mathematics majors and no
one is both a faculty member and a student.
Solution: By the sum rule it follows that there are
37 + 83 = 120 possible ways to pick a representative.
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 The Sum Rule in terms of sets.
The sum rule can be phrased in terms of sets.
|A ∪ B|= |A| + |B| as long as A and B are disjoint
sets.
Or more generally,

The case where the sets have elements in common

will be discussed when we consider the subtraction
rule and taken up fully in Chapter 8.
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 Combining the Sum and Product Rule
Example: Suppose statement labels in a
programming language can be either a single
letter or a letter followed by a digit. Find the
number of possible labels.
Solution: Use the product rule.
26 + 26 ∙ 10 = 286

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 Counting Passwords
Combining the sum and product rule allows us to solve more complex problems.
Example: Each user on a computer system has a password, which is six to eight
characters long, where each character is an uppercase letter or a digit. Each
password must contain at least one digit. How many possible passwords are
there?
Solution: Let P be the total number of passwords, and let P6, P7, and P8 be the
passwords of length 6, 7, and 8.
• By the sum rule P = P6 + P7 +P8.
• To find each of P6, P7, and P8 , we find the number of passwords of the specified
length composed of letters and digits and subtract the number composed only of
letters. We find that:
P6 = 366 − 266 =2,176,782,336 − 308,915,776 =1,867,866,560.
P7 = 367 − 267 =
78,364,164,096 − 8,031,810,176 = 70,332,353,920.
P8 = 368 − 268 =
2,821,109,907,456 − 208,827,064,576 =2,612,282,842,880.
Consequently, P = P6 + P7 +P8 = 2,684,483,063,360.
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 Internet Addresses
Version 4 of the Internet Protocol (IPv4) uses 32 bits.

Class A Addresses: used for the largest networks, a 0,followed by a 7-bit

netid and a 24-bit hostid.
Class B Addresses: used for the medium-sized networks, a 10,followed by a
14-bit netid and a 16-bit hostid.
Class C Addresses: used for the smallest networks, a 110,followed by a 21-bit
netid and a 8-bit hostid.
• Neither Class D nor Class E addresses are assigned as the address of a computer
on the internet. Only Classes A, B, and C are available.
• 1111111 is not available as the netid of a Class A network.
• Hostids consisting of all 0s and all 1s are not available in any network.
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 Counting Internet Addresses
Example: How many different IPv4 addresses are available for
computers on the internet?
Solution: Use both the sum and the product rule. Let x be the number of
available addresses, and let xA, xB, and xC denote the number of
addresses for the respective classes.
• To find, xA: 27 − 1 = 127 netids. 224 − 2 = 16,777,214 hostids.
xA = 127∙ 16,777,214 = 2,130,706,178.
• To find, xB: 214 = 16,384 netids. 216 − 2 = 16,534 hostids.
xB = 16,384 ∙ 16, 534 = 1,073,709,056.
• To find, xC: 221 = 2,097,152 netids. 28 − 2 = 254 hostids.
xC = 2,097,152 ∙ 254 = 532,676,608.
Not Enough Today !!
• Hence, the total number of available IPv4 addresses is The newer IPv6
x = xA + xB + Xc protocol solves the
= 2,130,706,178 + 1,073,709,056 + 532,676,608 problem of too few
= 3, 737,091,842. addresses.
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 Basic Counting Principles:
Subtraction Rule
Subtraction Rule: If a task can be done either in
one of n1 ways or in one of n2 ways, then the total
number of ways to do the task is n1 + n2 minus
the number of ways to do the task that are
common to the two different ways.
Also known as, the principle of inclusion-exclusion:

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 Counting Bit Strings
Example: How many bit strings of length eight either
start with a 1 bit or end with the two bits 00?
Solution: Use the subtraction rule.
• Number of bit strings of length eight
that start with a 1 bit: 27 = 128
• Number of bit strings of length eight
that end with bits 00: 26 = 64
• Number of bit strings of length eight
that start with a 1 bit and end with bits 00 : 25 = 32

Hence, the number is 128 + 64 − 32 = 160.

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 Basic Counting Principles: Division Rule
Division Rule: There are n/d ways to do a task if it can be done using a procedure that
can be carried out in n ways, and for every way w, exactly d of the n ways correspond
to way w.
Restated in terms of sets: If the finite set A is the union of n pairwise disjoint subsets
each with d elements, then n = |A|/d.
In terms of functions: If f is a function from A to B, where both are finite sets, and for
every value y ∈ B there are exactly d values x ∈ A such that f(x) = y, then |B| = |A|/d.

Example: How many ways are there to seat four people around a circular table, where
two seatings are considered the same when each person has the same left and right
neighbor?

Solution: Number the seats around the table from 1 to 4 proceeding clockwise. There
are four ways to select the person for seat 1, 3 for seat 2, 2, for seat 3, and one way for
seat 4. Thus there are 4! = 24 ways to order the four people. But since two seatings are
the same when each person has the same left and right neighbor, for every choice for
seat 1, we get the same seating.

Therefore, by the division rule, there are 24/4 = 6 different seating arrangements.

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 Tree Diagrams
Tree Diagrams: We can solve many counting problems through
the use of tree diagrams, where a branch represents a possible
choice and the leaves represent possible outcomes.
Example: Suppose that “I Love Discrete Math” T-shirts come in five
different sizes: S,M,L,XL, and XXL. Each size comes in four colors
(white, red, green, and black), except XL, which comes only in red,
green, and black, and XXL, which comes only in green and black.
What is the minimum number of shirts that the campus book store
needs to stock to have one of each size and color available?
Solution: Draw the tree diagram.

The store must stock 17 T-shirts.

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 The Pigeonhole Principle
Section 6.2

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 Section Summary 2

The Pigeonhole Principle

The Generalized Pigeonhole Principle

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 The Pigeonhole Principle 1

If a flock of 20 pigeons roosts in a set of 19 pigeonholes, one of

the pigeonholes must have more than 1 pigeon.

Pigeonhole Principle: If k is a positive integer and k + 1 objects are

placed into k boxes, then at least one box contains two or more
objects.
Proof: We use a proof by contraposition. Suppose none of the k
boxes has more than one object. Then the total number of objects
would be at most k. This contradicts the statement that we have k
+ 1 objects. Jump to long description
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 The Pigeonhole Principle 2

Corollary 1: A function f from a set with k + 1

elements to a set with k elements is not one-to-one.
Proof: Use the pigeonhole principle.
• Create a box for each element y in the codomain of f .
• Put in the box for y all of the elements x from the domain
such that f(x) = y.
• Because there are k + 1 elements and only k boxes, at
least one box has two or more elements.

Hence, f can’t be one-to-one.

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 Pigeonhole Principle
Example: Among any group of 367 people, there must be at
least two with the same birthday, because there are only 366
possible birthdays.
Example (optional): Show that for every integer n there is a
multiple of n that has only 0s and 1s in its decimal expansion.
Solution: Let n be a positive integer. Consider the n + 1
integers 1, 11, 111, …., 11…1 (where the last has n + 1 1s).
There are n possible remainders when an integer is divided by
n. By the pigeonhole principle, when each of the n + 1
integers is divided by n, at least two must have the same
remainder. Subtract the smaller from the larger and the result
is a multiple of n that has only 0s and 1s in its decimal
expansion.
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 The Generalized Pigeonhole Principle 1

The Generalized Pigeonhole Principle: If N objects are placed

into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing at least
⌈N/k⌉ objects.
Proof: We use a proof by contraposition. Suppose that none
of the boxes contains more than ⌈N/k⌉ − 1 objects. Then the
total number of objects is at most

where the inequality ⌈N/k⌉ < ⌈N/k⌉ + 1 has been used. This is a
contradiction because there are a total of n objects.
Example: Among 100 people there are at least
⌈100/12⌉ = 9 who were born in the same month.
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 The Generalized Pigeonhole Principle 2

Example: a) How many cards must be selected from a standard deck

of 52 cards to guarantee that at least three cards of the same suit are
chosen?
b) How many must be selected to guarantee that at least three hearts
are selected?
Solution: a) We assume four boxes; one for each suit. Using the
generalized pigeonhole principle, at least one box contains at least
⌈N/4⌉ cards. At least three cards of one suit are selected if ⌈N/4⌉ ≥3.
The smallest integer N such that ⌈N/4⌉ ≥3 is
N = 2 ∙ 4 + 1 = 9.
b) A deck contains 13 hearts and 39 cards which are not hearts. So, if
we select 41 cards, we may have 39 cards which are not hearts along
with 2 hearts. However, when we select 42 cards, we must have at
least three hearts. (Note that the generalized pigeonhole principle is
not used here.)
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 Permutations and
Combinations
Section 6.3

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 Section Summary 3

Permutations
Combinations
Combinatorial Proofs

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 Permutations
Definition: A permutation of a set of distinct objects is
an ordered arrangement of these objects. An ordered
arrangement of r elements of a set is called an
r-permutation.
Example: Let S = {1,2,3}.
• The ordered arrangement 3,1,2 is a permutation of S.
• The ordered arrangement 3,2 is a 2-permutation of S.
The number of r-permutations of a set with n
elements is denoted by P(n,r).
• The 2-permutations of S = {1,2,3} are 1,2; 1,3; 2,1; 2,3; 3,1;
and 3,2. Hence, P(3,2) = 6.
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 A Formula for the Number of
Permutations
Theorem 1: If n is a positive integer and r is an integer with 1 ≤ r ≤
n, then there are
P(n, r) = n(n − 1)(n − 2) ∙∙∙ (n − r + 1)
r-permutations of a set with n distinct elements.
Proof: Use the product rule. The first element can be chosen in n
ways. The second in n − 1 ways, and so on until there are
(n − ( r − 1)) ways to choose the last element.
Note that P(n,0) = 1, since there is only one way to order zero
elements.
Corollary 1: If n and r are integers with 1 ≤ r ≤ n, then

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Solving Counting Problems by Counting
Permutations 1

Example: How many ways are there to select a

first-prize winner, a second prize winner, and a
third-prize winner from 100 different people who
have entered a contest?
Solution:
P(100,3) = 100 ∙ 99 ∙ 98 = 970,200

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Solving Counting Problems by Counting
Permutations 2

Example: Suppose that a saleswoman has to visit

eight different cities. She must begin her trip in a
specified city, but she can visit the other seven cities
in any order she wishes. How many possible orders
can the saleswoman use when visiting these cities?
Solution: The first city is chosen, and the rest are
ordered arbitrarily. Hence the orders are:
7! = 7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 5040
If she wants to find the tour with the shortest path
that visits all the cities, she must consider 5040 paths!
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Solving Counting Problems by Counting
Permutations 3

Example: How many permutations of the letters

ABCDEFGH contain the string ABC ?
Solution: We solve this problem by counting the
permutations of six objects, ABC, D, E, F, G, and H.
6! = 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 720

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 Combinations 1

Definition: An r-combination of elements of a set is an

unordered selection of r elements from the set. Thus, an
r-combination is simply a subset of the set with r elements.
The number of r-combinations of a set with n distinct
elements is denoted by C(n, r). The notation
is also used and is called a binomial coefficient. (We will see
the notation again in the binomial theorem in Section 6.4.)
Example: Let S be the set {a, b, c, d}. Then {a, c, d} is a 3-
combination from S. It is the same as {d, c, a} since the order
listed does not matter.
C(4,2) = 6 because the 2-combinations of {a, b, c, d} are the six
subsets {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d}, and {c, d}.

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 Combinations 2

Theorem 2: The number of r-combinations of a

set with n elements, where n ≥ r ≥ 0, equals

Proof: By the product rule P(n, r) = C(n,r) ∙ P(r,r).

Therefore

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 Combinations 3

Example: How many poker hands of five cards can be

dealt from a standard deck of 52 cards? Also, how many
ways are there to select 47 cards from a deck of 52
cards?
Solution: Since the order in which the cards are dealt
does not matter, the number of five card hands is:

The different ways to select 47 cards from 52 is

This is a special case of a general result. →

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 Combinations 4

Corollary 2: Let n and r be nonnegative integers with

r ≤ n. Then C(n, r) = C(n, n − r).
Proof: From Theorem 2, it follows that

Hence, C(n, r) = C(n, n − r).

This result can be proved without using algebraic manipulation. →
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 Combinatorial Proofs 1

Definition 1: A combinatorial proof of an identity

is a proof that uses one of the following
methods.
• A double counting proof uses counting arguments to
prove that both sides of an identity count the same
objects, but in different ways.
• A bijective proof shows that there is a bijection
between the sets of objects counted by the two sides
of the identity.

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 Combinatorial Proofs 2

Here are two combinatorial proofs that

when r and n are nonnegative integers with r < n:

• Bijective Proof: Suppose that S is a set with n elements. The function
that maps a subset A of S to Ā is a bijection between the subsets of S
with r elements and the subsets with n − r elements. Since there is a
bijection between the two sets, they must have the same number of
elements.
• Double Counting Proof: By definition the number of subsets of S with
r elements is C(n, r). Each subset A of S can also be described by
specifying which elements are not in A, i.e., those which are in Ā.
Since the complement of a subset of S with r elements has n − r
elements, there are also C(n, n − r) subsets of S with r elements.
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 Combinations 5

Example: How many ways are there to select five players

from a 10-member tennis team to make a trip to a match at
another school.
Solution: By Theorem 2, the number of combinations is

Example: A group of 30 people have been trained as

astronauts to go on the first mission to Mars. How many ways
are there to select a crew of six people to go on this mission?
Solution: By Theorem 2, the number of possible crews is

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 Binomial Coefficients and
Identities
Section 6.4

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 Section Summary 4

The Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Identity and Triangle
Other Identities Involving Binomial Coefficients
(not currently included in overheads)

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 Powers of Binomial Expressions
Definition: A binomial expression is the sum of two terms, such as x + y. (More
generally, these terms can be products of constants and variables.)
• We can use counting principles to find the coefficients in the expansion of (x + y)n
where n is a positive integer.
• To illustrate this idea, we first look at the process of expanding (x + y)3.
• (x + y) (x + y) (x + y) expands into a sum of terms that are the product of a term from
each of the three sums.
• Terms of the form x3, x2y, x y2, y3 arise. The question is what are the coefficients?
• To obtain x3 , an x must be chosen from each of the sums. There is only one way to do this.
So, the coefficient of x3 is 1.
• To obtain x2y, an x must be chosen from two of the sums and a y from the other. There
are ways to do this and so the coefficient of x2y is 3.
• To obtain xy2, an x must be chosen from of the sums and a y from the other two .
There are ways to do this and so the coefficient of xy2 is 3.
• To obtain y3 , a y must be chosen from each of the sums. There is only one way to do
this. So, the coefficient of y3 is 1.
We have used a counting argument to show that (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3x y2 + y3 .
Next we present the binomial theorem gives the coefficients of the terms in the
expansion of (x + y)n .
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 Binomial Theorem
Binomial Theorem: Let x and y be variables, and
n a nonnegative integer. Then:

Proof: We use combinatorial reasoning . The

terms in the expansion of (x + y)n are of the form
xn−jyj for j = 0,1,2,…,n. To form the term xn−jyj, it
is necessary to choose n−j xs from the n sums.
Therefore, the coefficient of xn−jyj is
which equals
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 Using the Binomial Theorem
Example: What is the coefficient of x12y13 in the
expansion of (2x − 3y)25?
Solution: We view the expression as (2x +(−3y))25.
By the binomial theorem

Consequently, the coefficient of x12y13 in the

expansion is obtained when j = 13.

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 A Useful Identity
Corollary 1: With n ≥0,
Proof (using binomial theorem): With x = 1 and y = 1,
from the binomial theorem we see that:

Proof (combinatorial): Consider the subsets of a set

with n elements. There are subsets with zero
with one element, with twoelements,
elements, …, and
with n elements. Therefore the total is
Since, we know that a set with n
elements has 2n subsets, we conclude:
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 Pascal’s Identity
Pascal’s Identity: If n and k are integers with Blaise Pascal
n ≥ k ≥ 0, then (1623-1662)
Proof (combinatorial): Let T be a set where |T| = n + 1, a ∊T, and S
= T − {a}. There are subsets of T containing k elements.
Each of these subsets either:
• contains a with k − 1 other elements, or
• contains k elements of S and not a.
There are
• subsets of k elements that contain a, since there are
subsets of k − 1 elements of S,
• subsets of k elements of T that do not contain a, because there are
subsets of k elements of S. See Exercise 19 for
Hence, an algebraic proof.
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 Pascal’s Triangle
The nth row in the
triangle consists of the
binomial coefficients
k = 0,1,….,n.

By Pascal’s identity, adding two adjacent binomial coefficients

results is the binomial coefficient in the next row between these
two coefficients.

Jump to long description

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 Generalized Permutations
and Combinations
Section 6.5

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 Section Summary 5

Permutations with Repetition

Combinations with Repetition
Permutations with Indistinguishable Objects
Distributing Objects into Boxes

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 Permutations with Repetition
Theorem 1: The number of r-permutations of a set of n
objects with repetition allowed is nr.
Proof: There are n ways to select an element of the set
for each of the r positions in the r-permutation when
repetition is allowed. Hence, by the product rule there
are nr r-permutations with repetition.
Example: How many strings of length r can be formed
from the uppercase letters of the English alphabet?
Solution: The number of such strings is 26r, which is the
number of r-permutations of a set with 26 elements.

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 Combinations with Repetition 1

Example: How many ways are there to select five

bills from a box containing at least five of each of the
following denominations: $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50,
and $100?
Solution: Place the selected bills in the appropriate
position of a cash box illustrated below:

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 Combinations with Repetition 2

Some possible ways of placing the five bills:

The number of ways to
select five bills corresponds
to the number of ways to
arrange six bars and five stars
in a row.
This is the number of unordered
selections of 5 objects from a set of 11. Hence, there are

ways to choose five bills with seven types of bills.

Jump to long description
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 Combinations with Repetition 3

Theorem 2: The number 0f r-combinations from a set with

n elements when repetition of elements is allowed is

Proof: Each r-combination of a set with n elements with

repetition allowed can be represented by a list of n –1 bars
and r stars. The bars mark the n cells containing a star for
each time the ith element of the set occurs in the
combination.
The number of such lists is C(n + r – 1, r), because each list is a
choice of the r positions to place the stars, from the total of n
+ r – 1 positions to place the stars and the bars. This is also
equal to C(n + r – 1, n –1), which is the number of ways to
place the n –1 bars.
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 Combinations with Repetition 4

Example: How many solutions does the equation

have, where x1 , x2 and x3 are nonnegative integers?

Solution: Each solution corresponds to a way to
select 11 items from a set with three elements; x1
elements of type one, x2 of type two, and x3 of type
three.
By Theorem 2 it follows that there are

solutions.
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 Combinations with
Repetition5

Example: Suppose that a cookie shop

has four different kinds of cookies. How
many different ways can six cookies be chosen?
Solution: The number of ways to choose six
cookies is the number of 6-combinations of a set
with four elements. By Theorem 2

is the number of ways to choose six cookies

from the four kinds.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Summarizing the Formulas for Counting Permutations
and Combinations with and without Repetition

TABLE 1 Combinations and Permutations With and Without Repetition.

Type Repetition Allowed? Formula

r-permutations No

r-combinations No

r-permutations Yes

r-combinations Yes

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Permutations with Indistinguishable
Objects 1

Example: How many different strings can be made by reordering

the letters of the word SUCCESS.
Solution: There are seven possible positions for the three Ss, two
Cs, one U, and one E.
• The three Ss can be placed in C(7,3) different ways, leaving four positions
free.
• The two Cs can be placed in C(4,2) different ways, leaving two positions
free.
• The U can be placed in C(2,1) different ways, leaving one position free.
• The E can be placed in C(1,1) way.
By the product rule, the number of different strings is:

The reasoning can be generalized to the following theorem. →

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Permutations with Indistinguishable
Objects 2

Theorem 3: The number of different permutations of n objects, where

there are n1 indistinguishable objects of type 1, n2 indistinguishable
objects of type 2, …., and nk indistinguishable objects of type k, is:

Proof: By the product rule the total number of permutations is:

C(n, n1 ) C(n − n1, n2 ) ∙∙∙ C(n − n1 − n2 − ∙∙∙ − nk, nk) since:
• The n1 objects of type one can be placed in the n positions in C(n, n1 ) ways,
leaving n − n1 positions.
• Then the n2 objects of type two can be placed in the n − n1 positions in
C(n − n1, n2 ) ways, leaving n − n1 − n2 positions.
• Continue in this fashion, until nk objects of type k are placed in
C(n − n1 − n2 − ∙∙∙ − nk, nk) ways.
The product can be manipulated into the desired result as follows:

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Distributing Objects into Boxes 1

Many counting problems can be solved by

counting the ways objects can be placed in boxes.
• The objects may be either different from each other
(distinguishable) or identical (indistinguishable).
• The boxes may be labeled (distinguishable) or
unlabeled (indistinguishable).

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Distributing Objects into Boxes 2

Distinguishable objects and distinguishable boxes.

• There are n!/(n1!n2! ∙∙∙nk!) ways to distribute n distinguishable
objects into k distinguishable boxes.
• (See Exercises 47 and 48 for two different proofs.)
• Example: There are 52!/(5!5!5!5!32!) ways to distribute hands of 5
cards each to four players.
Indistinguishable objects and distinguishable boxes.
• There are C(n + r − 1, n − 1) ways to place r indistinguishable
objects into n distinguishable boxes.
• Proof based on one-to-one correspondence between
n-combinations from a set with k-elements when repetition is
allowed and the ways to place n indistinguishable objects into k
distinguishable boxes.
• Example: There are C(8 + 10 − 1, 10) = C(17,10) = 19,448 ways to
place 10 indistinguishable objects into 8 distinguishable boxes.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Distributing Objects into Boxes 3

Distinguishable objects and indistinguishable boxes.

• Example: There are 14 ways to put four employees into three
indistinguishable offices (see Example 10).
• There is no simple closed formula for the number of ways to
distribute n distinguishable objects into j indistinguishable boxes.
• See the text for a formula involving Stirling numbers of the second
kind.
Indistinguishable objects and indistinguishable boxes.
• Example: There are 9 ways to pack six copies of the same book into
four identical boxes (see Example 11).
• The number of ways of distributing n indistinguishable objects into k
indistinguishable boxes equals pk(n), the number of ways to write n as
the sum of at most k positive integers in increasing order.
• No simple closed formula exists for this number.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Appendix of Image Long
Descriptions

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 The Product Rule – Appendix

There are 6 gaps, 3 for letters and 3 for digits. There is a curly
bracket under the gaps for letters showing that there are 26
choices for each letter. Also, there is a curly bracket under the
gaps for digits showing that there are 10 choices for each digit.

Jump to the image

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Internet Addresses – Appendix

There is a table consisting of 32 columns and 5 rows. The

columns are numbered from 0 to 31, and they represent a bit
number. The rows are Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class
E. Bit 0 in Class A is 0. Bits 1 through 7 are labeled net ID. Bits 8
through 31 are labeled host ID. Bit 0 in Class B is 1, bit 1 is 0. Bits
2 through 15 are labeled net ID. Bits 16 through 31 are labeled
host ID. Bits 0 and 1 in Class C are 1, bit 2 is 0, bits 3 through 23
are labeled net ID. Bits 24 through 31 are labeled host ID. Bits 0,
1, and 2 in Class D are 1, bit 3 is 0. Bits 4 through 31 are labeled
Multicast Address. Bits 0, 1, 2, and 3 in Class D are 1. Bit 4 is 0.
Bits 5 through 31 are labeled Address.

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© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Counting Bit Strings – Appendix

There are three lines of 8 gaps each. In the first line, the first gap
is 1, and there is a curly bracket under other gaps showing that
there are 2 to the seventh power equal to 128 ways to place 0
and 1 on the remaining 7 gaps. The two last gaps of the second
line are 0, and there is a curly bracket under other gaps showing
that there are 2 to the sixth power equal to 64 ways to place 0
and 1 on the remaining 6 gaps. The first gap of the third line is 1,
two last gaps are 0. Also, there is a curly bracket under other
gaps showing that there are 2 to the fifth power equal to 32
ways to place 0 and 1 on the remaining 5 gaps.

Jump to the image

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Tree Diagrams – Appendix

The tree has a root on a basic level. The root has five branches to
the vertices that labeled as S, M, L, X L, and X X L. Each of
vertices S, M, and L has four branches to the vertices labeled W,
R, G, and B. Vertex X L has three branches to vertices labeled R,
G, and B. Vertex X X L has two branches to vertices labeled G and
B.

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© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 The Pigeonhole Principle 1 – Appendix

There are three 4 by 3 tables labeled A, B, and C. Table A. Cells 1,

3 and 2, 2 are empty. There are 3 pigeons in cell 1, 2 and 2
pigeons in cell 3, 3. All other cells have one pigeon. Table B.
There are 2 pigeons in cell 1,1. All other cells have one pigeon.
Table C. Cells 1, 2 and 4, 1 and 4, 2 are empty. There are 3
pigeons in cell 1, 3. There are 2 pigeons in cells 2, 1 and 3, 1. All
other cells have one pigeon.

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© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Pascal’s Triangle – Appendix

The elements of the first triangle are binomial coefficients. The

top number is the row number, and the bottom number is the
column number, both starting from 0. Coefficient 0, 0 is at the
top. The elements of the second triangle are natural numbers. 1
is at the top of the triangle and along the left and right edges.
The numbers between them are the sums of two numbers
above.

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© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Combinations with Repetition 2 – Appendix

The first way is 2 10 dollar bills from the fourth compartment

and 3 1 dollar bills from the seventh compartment. Or 3 bars, 2
stars, 3 bars, and 3 stars. The second way is 1 100 dollar bill from
the first compartment. 1 50 dollar bill from the second
compartment. 2 20 dollar bills from the third compartment, and
1 5 dollar bill from the fifth compartment. Or 1 star, 1 bar, 1 star.
1 bar, 2 stars, 2 bars. 1 star, and 2 bars. The third way is 1 100
dollar bill from the first compartment. 2 10 dollar bills from the
fourth compartment. 1 2 dollar bill from the sixth compartment,
and 1 1 dollar bill from the seventh compartment. Or 1 star, 3
bars, 2 stars. 2 bars, 1 star, 1 bar, and 1 star.

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© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education