ROLAND N.

RESURRECCION
Criminology Board Reviewer/Book Author
 History of Transportation

Transportation:
Transportation is the movement or conveying of
persons and goods from one location to another.
Biblical Passages:
God sent Adam and Eve when they ate the fruit
of the forbidden tree. “Therefore the Lord God
sent him forth from the garden of Eden, to till the
ground whence he was taken.”
 Moses was chosen by God to speak to the
Pharaoh, King of Egypt to let His children out of
Egypt. So, the children of Israel were gloriously
brought out from Egypt to serve God.
Nomads
Nomad came from the Greek, “to pasture,” was
originally used to refer to pastoralists-groups
that migrate in an established pattern to find
pasture lands for their domestic livestock.
 3 Types of Nomads
1. Foraging populations who wander to search
food.
2. Pastoral nomads who move with their families,
belongings and herd sheeps camels etc.
3. The gypsies, tinkers, and similar itinerants in
urban and complex cities.

With no doubt, human beings started traveling

to places by foot.
 Various Ancient Modes of
Transportation

I. Man Power:
1. Carrying Pole- balancing on one
shoulder that has started in China.
2. Backload and Tumpline
3. Sledge on Rollers
4. Sledge on Runners- used at the
end of the Old Stone Age in
Northern Europe.
5. Travois
 II. Animal Power:

1. Ox- First domesticated in Mesopotamia

to draw war chariots while it was used in
some parts of Africa for riding.
2. Reindeer- First domesticated in Siberia
3. Dog- used to draw small carts in
Europe.
4. Donkey- First domesticated in Middle
East. Today, it is still the chief beast
burden among the farmers of the Near
East, Mediterranean Area and Mexico,
where it was introduced from Spain.
5. Llama- Used in high Andes as pack
animal by the Incas and their Spanish
conquerors.
6. Elephant- Used by Carthaginians
(African Elephant) in their war against
Rome.
7. Horse- used to draw chariots
8. Camel
9. Yak-
 III. Wind Power

1. Ancient Chinese Kite

2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter- Leonardo da
Vinci. It was based from the flight of
birds.
3. Montgolfier Balloon- France Joseph
Michel and Jacques Entienne
Balloon was used to condemn prisoners
but was protested.
4. Siemens’ Rocket Plane- Ernst Werner
Von Siemens
He designed a rocket plane that was
propelled by an explosive force of
gunpowder.
5. Santos Dumont’s Airship- Alberto
Santos Dumont
He is one of the pioneers of lighter-
than- air craft.
Roads and Vehicles History
The invention of road leads to the
discovery of wheel.

Some inventions and innovations and events

that lead to modern land transportation
I. Wheel
Wheel was man’s great invention.
It was invented in Western Asia which
became a milestone and great step forward in
transportation.
It began to appear in Tigris-Euphrates
Valley about 3500BC and later in Crete,
Egypt and China.
Earliest Types of Wheeled
Vehicles

1. Solid Wheels on Fixed Axle

2. Sumerian Chariot with Flank Wheels
3. Greek Quadriga with Spoke Wheels
4. Roman Carpentum
5. Italian Cocchio
II. Wheeled Vehicles
Could not use the narrow paths and trails
used by pack animals, and early roads were
soon built.
III. The Romans
They were known as major road builders
because they brought road building to its
highest point of perfection during ancient
times (road network 50,000miles).
They built road with deep foundation, formed
by layer after heavy stones (FEEDER).
FEEDER concept of road building was
perfected by John L. Macadam
(Macadamized Road) 1815
IV. Bicycle Invention
Bicycle served as a nursery of
automobile builders in the early 19th
century.
Hobby Horse or Dan Horse became
the modern ancestors of modern bicycle
(wheels were made of wood with metal
tires).
Karl Von Drais 1817- A German baron
introduced a steerable wheel, creating
the “draisienne” or “dandy horse”.
Draisienne
Kirkpatrick Macmillan 1838- A skittish
blacksmith, made the first machine
pedals which were attached to and
drove the rear wheel by means of
cranks.
V. Pneumatic Tires (Inflated by air)
It was introduced by a Scot, John
Boyd Dunlop in the 19th century.
VI. Motor Vehicle
Automobile found its greatest
popularity in United States.
Etienne Lenoir- A Frenchman, introduced a
motorized carriages through his Internal
Combustion Engine (1860’s and 70’s).
Henry Ford 1908- introduced the Model
T (Ford Vehicle) which became popular
that by 1914, Ford adopted a mass
production to meet demands of the
people.
 The Origin of the Word
Traffic
The word traffic originates from a Greco-Roman word
“Trafico” with reference to the movement of people
that dates back from the dawns of history, from the
domesticated horse drawn wheels to horseless
carriage.
The Greek originally called the system “Trafiga”
after the early horse-drawn chariots with spoke wheels.
If savant of Rome is to be believed, there is no
dispute that the word trafigo is a Greco-Roman word,
but the word traffic was crafted from the famous
“Trafalgar Square” the hub-center of commerce and
culture in the heart of London.
 But in Latin, the word traffic is denominated
as “Commercium” with reference to the
movement and control of goods in transit, from
unwheeled axle to horseless carriage. This
intellectual discourse of discoveries only to
reinforce the universal dictum, that traffic refers
to the movement of people and goods and not
vehicle.
Early 16th century via obsolete French
Trafique from Old Italian Traffico from Tafficare
‘to carry on trade’ of uncertain origin.
The Three E’s of Traffic:

The concept of traffic was originated

from Egypt even though it was claimed
by other countries. While its
sophistication and the principle of the
three E’s Enforcement, Engineering and
Education was developed in Rome,
there is however, no historical barrier
that the original traffic philosophy began
in Egypt.
 Horseless Carriage:

The French invention of motorized carriage in

1898 and the American introduction of
locomotive a year later, further accelerated
the development of traffic. In the same vein,
the horse-drawn (Calesa) saw anew
competition on the road when in 1909 the first
ever car arrived in Manila through one
George Richard.
 Traffic Management
Is an executive function such as plan,
organize, direct, supervise, coordinate,
operate, record, and budget traffic affairs. It
also refers to all agencies having tasks for
ascertaining traffic flow requirements, such as
planning, approving funding, constructing
and/or maintaining public facilities for such
movement. Further, it also refers to all
agencies responsible for licensing, approving,
stopping, restricting, prohibiting, or controlling
the use of these facilities.
 Traffic
It refers to the movement of persons, goods
or vehicles, either powered by combustion
system or animal drawn from one place to
another for the purpose of safe travel.
Roadway
It refers to that part of the traffic way over
which motor vehicles pass.
Shoulder
It refers to the either side of the roadway,
especially along highways.
Traffic Way
Refers to the entire width between
boundary lines of every way or place of
which any part is open to use of the
public for purposes of vehicular traffic
as a matter of right or custom.
 Agencies Involved in
traffic Management
1. Department of Transportation and Communication
(DOTC)
2. City or Municipal Engineer’s Office
3. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)
4. Legislative (Congress/City or Municipal Boards)
5. TMG-PNP
6. Academic Institution
7. Court
8. Public Information Office
9. Citizens Support Group
10. Media
11. Others
 Five Pillars or 5E’s of
Traffic Management:

1. Traffic Engineering is the science of

measuring traffic and travel and the
study of the basic laws relative to the
traffic flow and generation, and the
application of this knowledge to the
professional practice of planning, and
the operating traffic systems to achieve
safe and efficient movement of persons
and goods.
Objectives if Traffic Engineering
a. Achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic.
b. Prevent traffic accident.
c. Simplify police enforcement actions and
performance.
d. Show that good police actions and
performance makes engineering plans
effective.
e. Present close relationship of the pillars of
traffic in the improvement of traffic problems.
Functions of Traffic Engineering
a. Fact-finding, surveys and
recommendations of traffic rules and
regulation;
b. Supervisions and maintenance to the
application of traffic control devices; and
c. Planning of traffic regulations.
 Agencies Involve
a. DPWH
b. Provincial Governments
c. Municipal Governments
d. Charted Cities
2. Traffic Education is the process of
giving training and travel and practice in
the actual application of traffic safety
knowledge. This call to the mind Dr.
Jose Rizal’s words of wisdom, “The
destiny and fate of republic depend
on sound education.”
Traffic Safety Education
This can be carried out on the following
levels:
1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic
safety.
2. Training and practice in the actual
application of traffic safety.
3. Developing traffic safety morality.
Responsible for Traffic Education
a. Schools (Public/Private)
1. Elementary- focused on safety and
guides stressing traffic safety.
2. Secondary- Students id geared
towards school safety organizations.
3. Higher Education- Conduct courses
regarding traffic safety subjects.
b. Public Information Programs-
Information dissemination
c. Citizens Support Groups
3. Traffic Enforcement is the action
taken by the police, such as arresting,
issuing traffic citation ticket, and giving
warning to the erring drivers for the
purpose of deterring and discouraging
and/or to preventing such violation.
a. Land Transportation
Office(R.A.4136)
1. Vehicle registration
2. Vehicle Inspection
3. Driver’s licensing (examinations,
suspensions and revocations)
4. Public to police on stolen or wanted
vehicles
b. Legislative Bodies (National- Local)
c. Police Traffic Enforcement- It is not limited
to PNP-TMG. It also includes:
1. Metropolitan Manila Development Authority
(for NCR)
2. Police Auxiliaries
3. LTO Flying Squad.
d. Land Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board (LTFRB)
e. Department of Transportation and
Communication (DOTC)
4. Traffic Environment/Ecology is the
study of dealing with potentially
disastrous population explosion,
changes in urban environment due to
the scale and density of a new urban
concentration and new activities carried
out, air pollution, water pollution and
crowding, especially transport
congestion which result therein.
Common Environmental Effects (Good/Bad)
of Traffic
1. Noise Pollution
2. Vibration
3. Relocation
4. Disturbance Costs
5. Accidents
6. Pedestrian Journey
7. Congestion and Other Benefits to Vehicles
8. Dir
9. Air Pollution
5. Traffic Economy is the study how people
choose to use scarce or limited productive
resources to produce commodities and
distribute them for their consumption.

The 5th pillar of traffic is not a choice of

necessity but signs of the time. What
economics hope to fulfill and perhaps built to
influence traffic management is a statement of
generalities that need the tools of analysis to
help predict the specific tendencies and
relevance, on the effects on individual,
environment, country and traffic.
 Biorhythm is the theory which asserts that a
man exhibits constant variation of life, energy
and mood states.

Man’s Theorized Cycles and Interpretation.

Rhythm are peculiar characteristics of most
natural phenomena.
Example:
1. The diurnal exchange of light and
darkness.
2. The four seasons.
3. Our wet and dry season.
4. The waxing and waning of moon.
The most famous of biorhythm are the
following:
1. 23 days physical cycle
2. 28 days emotional cycle
3. 33 days intellectual cycle
The 23 days cycle is also known as our cycle
of strength, endurance and courage (the male
component of a person).The 28 day cycle
(equal to a girl’s 28 day menstrual cycle)is
also known as our cycle of sensitivity, love
and intuition (the female component of a
person). When the curve is above the center
line, the biorhythm value is said to be “high”
or a person has some more energy to spare.
Example:
1. Physical high – we tend to be
energetic, strong full of vitality.
2. Emotional high – we tend to be
creative, artistic, cheerful and happy.
3. Intellectual high – we are able to think
quickly and logically.

When the curve is below the center

line, the biorhythm is said to be “low” in
a recharged period.
Example:
1. Physical Low – we tend to tired
quickly; tend to succumb to illness
easily.
2. Emotional Low – we feel moody,
irritable or depressed.
3. Intellectual Low – we have poor
judgment etc.
Registration of Motor Vehicles
R.A. 5136 mandates that all motor
vehicles shall be registered by its owner
before the designated District Offices of
LTO.
Classification of Registered Motor
Vehicles/Plate Numbers
1. Private- Green with White Background
2. Public Utility Vehicle- Black with
Yellow Background
3. Government- Red (Maroon) with White
Background
4. Diplomat- Blue with White Background
5. Commemorative Plate- issued for
purposes such as fund raising for
government projects and programs.
Schedule of Registration
Last Digit of Middle Digit of Weekly Deadline
Plate Number Plate Number
1-Jan 6-Jun 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2-Feb 7-Jul 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3-Mar 8-Aug 7 8 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
4-Apr 9-Sep 9 0 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
5-May 0-Oct 29 30 31

RNR 509
Driver’s License
It is not a right but a privilege granted
by the Philippine Government through
LTO based on R.A. 4136 (statutory
qualification). Further, it is a privilege
which may be suspended or revoked.
It is a public document which has the
presumption of genuineness. (CCC
insurance Corp. vs. CA, SCRA 264)
Sec. 19 of R.A. 4136-Duty to Procure License
No person shall operate any motor vehicle
without first procuring a license to drive.
Sec.29 of R.A. 4136-Confiscation of Driver’s
License
Driver’s license may be confiscated for
violations of R.A. 4136, the rules and
regulations issued by the Commissioner and
Local Traffic rules and regulations.
When confiscated, traffic enforcer MUST
issue a receipt (TOP) which is good for 72
hrs. Failure to settle within 15 days will cause
suspension or revocation of license.
 Types of License, Procedures and
Procurement

1. Student Permit
Allowed to drive only in the presence of a
duly license driver accredited by the LTO,
acting as instructor to the student-driver who
shall be equally responsible and liable for any
violation of the provision of R.A. 4136 as
amended and for any damage done by the
motor vehicle or account or as a result of its
operation by the student-driver under his
direction.
The applicant must be:
a. At least 16 years of age (Birth certificate)with
the consent of parents.
b. Physically sound and in good health with no
contagious ailments.
c. Mentally capable
d. Know how to read and write
e. Must apply personally
f. Payment
Validity: 1 year from the date of issuance.
2. Non-Professional Driver’s License (Green
Logo)

Applicant must fulfill the following:

a. Must be at least 17 years of age.
b. Has previously issued with Driver’s Permit not
less than 1 month.
c. Certified by an LTO accredited doctor that:
c.1. he/she is physically and mentally sound.
c.2. he/she has normal vision hearing
d. Pass the written examination.
e. Pass the actual road test
f. Fill out the application form
g. Payment
Two kinds of applicants for non-professional
driver’s license
a. Holder of student permit for 4-5 months old,
and
b. The applicant for the renewal of the expired
non-professional driver’s license.
Restriction
a. The holder is allowed to drive his own vehicle
only and not to earn livelihood.
b. The type of category of vehicle authorized to
be driven is up to 4500kgs gross vehicle weight
(GVW).
Validity
a. Valid for 3 years from the date issuance.
b. Renewable every 3 birth months
succeeding years and automatically
expires if not renewed on due date.
3. Professional Driver’s License (Red
Logo)
The distinctive feature of the holder of
professional driver’s license is the
privilege to make driving a means of
livelihood.
Must be:
a. At least 18 years of age.
b. Present either:
b.1. A student permit issued/possessed for at least
5 mos.
b.2. Non-professional driver’s license
issued/possessed by the applicant for not less than 4
mos.
c. Certified by an LTO accredited doctor that:
c.1. he/she is physically and mentally sound.
c.2. he/she has normal vision hearing.
c.3. has no contagious ailment
c.4. no history of heavy liquor drinking and drug
abuse.
d. Criminal clearance (PNP, NBI or
Prosecutor).
e. Must pass the written examination.
f. Pass the actual road test.
g. Fill out the application form
h. Payment
Validity
a. Valid for 3 years from date of
issuance
b. Renewable every 3 birth months of
succeeding year and automatically
expires if not renewed on due date.
4. Military Driver’s License
This is one of the two special types of
license issued by the agency for limited and
special purpose.
While the issuance is made by the Armed
Forces of the Philippines (AFP), however, the
holder has to pass all the test and
examination in compliance with the rules and
regulation thereof.
The holder must be military personnel and
authorized to drive a military vehicle only.
Validity
a. Valid for 3 years from the date of
issuance
b. Renewable every birth month of
succeeding year and automatically
expires if not renewed on due date.
5. International Driver’s License
This is the second special type of license
issued for special purpose and issued by the
Philippine Motor Association (PMA). Before
issuance applicant must be a holder of domestic
license, a sine-quanon before the issuance of
International Driver’s License.
This kind of license is also issued to
foreigner or tourist driver’s license who desire to
drive for a period not beyond 90 days sojourn,
provided the applicant must comply with the
basic requirement for licensing.
Validity
It is valid as indicated therefore and
recognized in countries signatories to the
Geneva Convention.
Driver’s Examination
1. Written Examination
a. Non-Professional License-must have
30 points out of 40 questions
b. Professional License- must have 50
points out of 60 questions
2. Road Test

Mandatory Drug Test

Driver’s Restriction Code

Restriction Code No. 1 is limited to a motorcycle/motorized Tricycles.

Restriction Code No. 2 vehicle up to GVW of 4500 Kgs
Restriction Code No. 3 vehicle with GVW above 4500 Kgs
Restriction Code No. 4 automatic clutch up to 4500 Kgs GVW
Restriction Code No. 5 automatic clutch above 4500 Kgs GVW
Restriction Code No. 6 articulated vehicle 1600kgs GVW & below
Restriction Code No. 7 articulated vehicle 1601 up to 4500 Kgs GVW
Restriction Code No. 8 articulated vehicle 4501 Kgs & above GVW
Restriction Code No. 9 disabled
Driver’s Condition
A- wear eye glasses
B- drive only with special equipment for
upper limbs
C- drive only with special equipment for
lower limbs
D- daylight driving only
E- accompanied by a person with
normal hearing
Lost Driver’s License:
Licensee shall apply for a duplicate of
the original on file with the LTO by filing
a sworn statement that such license has
been lost and that a thorough and
diligent search was useless.
Duty of the Driver in Case of accident
a. Stop immediately
b. If requested by any person present,
shall show his driver’s license
c. Give his true name and address and
also the true name and address of
the owner of the motor vehicle.
Exceptions to HIT and RUN
1. If he is in imminent danger of being
seriously harmed by any person/s by
reason of the accident.
2. If he reports the accident to the nearest
officer of the law; and
3. If he has to summon a physician or
nurse to aid the victim.
The Conductor – As mandated by law,
the conductor must pass the statutory
qualification before a license is issued in
his favor, a condition precedent to his
employment. He shall be exclusively
held liable if he allow more passengers
or more freight or cargo in his public
utility trucks or buses.
 The Ten Commandments
of Traffic
1. Keep Right –except when overtaking
another vehicle and shall pass at a safe
distance to the left thereof, except further, on
a highway, that has two or more lanes for the
movement of traffic in one direction.
On highway having two or more lanes for
the movement of traffic in one direction the
driver of a slow moving vehicle shall drive to
the right, while the driver of a fast moving
motor vehicle to the left.
In case of incoming emergency motor
vehicle, the non-emergency vehicle shall
immediately drive to the right to enable the
former to overtake the latter.
2. Observe Road Courtesy – One must
yield to emergency vehicles,
pedestrians, trains, vehicles with right of
way, vehicles ahead, large vehicles,
uphill traffic, and traffic with momentum,
straight traffic, and traffic signs.
Emergency vehicle, the LTO refers to:
• Vehicles with physicians on emergency call.
• An ambulance of emergency call.
• Vehicle with wounded or sick person for
emergency treatment.
• AFP/PNP vehicles on official time in use of
riot, insurrection, rebellion or invasion.
• Vehicles in pursuit of a criminal including a
law enforcer overtaking of pursuing traffic
violence.
• A police or fire department vehicle on call.
The Right of Way Rule:
It means the right to proceed ahead
of another vehicle or pedestrian.

Note: A high percentage of all collision

occurs at intersection. Many of these
maybe attributed to the driver’s
uncertainty or failure to observe the
rules of the right of way.
Pedestrian – The driver of any vehicle upon a
highway shall yield the right of way to a
pedestrian crossing such highway within
crosswalk, except at the intersection where
the movement of traffic is being regulated by
a peace officer or by traffic signal. Every
pedestrian crossing a highway within a
business or residential district, at any point
other than a crosswalk, shall yield the right of
way to vehicles upon the highway.
Through Highway or Railroad Crossing
– The driver of the vehicle upon a
highway shall bring to a full stop such
vehicle before traversing any “through
highway” or Railroad crossing except if
it is apparent that no hazard exists.

Private Road to Highway – A vehicle

from a private road must yield to that on
a highway.
3. Prohibited Parking – Vehicles should no be
parked near or within intersection, on
crosswalk or pedestrian lane; within 6 meters
of the intersection of curb lines; within 4
meters of the drive way entrance of any fire
station, hospitals, clinic and others; within 4
meters of a fire hydrant; in front of a private
driveway; double parking or on the road side
of any vehicle stopped or parked; on the
sidewalks, path or alleys not intended for
parking; at the foot of the bridge; at any place
where official signs are posted prohibiting
parking or to be declared “NO PARKING”
zone.
4. If Doubt, Do Not Overtake – In
general, the overtaking lane is the lane
to the left of the overtaken vehicle going
in the same direction, the overtaken
vehicle is the burden vehicle.
Before overtaking, consider the ff:
1. Signal the intention.
2. Check if overtaking lane is clearly
visible and free of oncoming traffic for a
sufficient distance ahead to be safe.
3. Maneuver at own risk to over take and
pass the other vehicle safely at a
distance to the side of the overtaken
vehicle when a lane is clear.
5. The Bus-stop Rule – Buses line up in a
single file in their order of arrival. The lead
bus moves forward to center of the column of
buses lining up on the bus stop zone, and
may remain until the zone is filled up with
buses, but not hang on than three minutes.
Any bus has the option to move out of the
area anytime or bypass a bus stop. There
shall be no doubling up at any point in the
bus stop zone.
6. Rules to Prevent or Untangle Traffic Jams
– Keep opposing lanes and intersection open.
In heavy, slow or stopped traffic, there shall
be no overtaking. In construction, the vehicles
should merge alternately.

7. Observe the Traffic Management

Measures – Like the bus yellow lane, bus
stop segregation scheme, truck ban, counter
flow reversible lane, one way, car pool, odd-
even scheme and restraints on turning.
8. The Philosophy of a Pinoy Driver –
Motorists should observe equity of the
lead vehicle, doctrine of the last clear
chance, and the first come first served
or Rotunda rule.
9. On Pedestrian – Keep off road way
except to cross on crosswalk. Wait,
embark, and alight at bus or jeep stop.
10. Remember the International Driving
safety Reminder – Safety first.
 Maximum Allowable
Speeds for Vehicles
a. Open country roads, with no blind corners
not closely bordered by habitations.
Passenger cars and motorcycles 80 Kms.
Motor Tricks and Buses 50 Kms.
b. On “through streets” or boulevards clear of
traffic, with no blind corners, when so
designated.
Passenger cars and motorcycles 40 Kms.
Motor Tricks and Buses 30 Kms.
c. On city and municipal streets, with light
traffic, when not designated through
streets.
Passenger cars and motorcycles 30 Kms.
Motor Tricks and Buses 30 Kms.
d. Through crowded streets, approaching
intersections at blind corners, passing
school zones or similar dangerous
circumstances.
Passenger cars and motorcycles 20 Kms.
Motor Tricks and Buses 20 Kms.
 Traffic Law Enforcement
Enforcement of Traffic Legislation
It is the area of activity aimed to controlling road
user behavior by preventive, persuasive and
punitive methods in order to effect the safe and
efficient movement of traffic.
Traffic Law Enforcer
Any person duly deputized by an agency of
government authorized by law to enforce traffic
laws, rules and regulations.
Police Traffic Law Enforcement – The
part of traffic enforcement performed by
the police and other agencies with
police power including deterrent to law
violation created by the presence of
uniformed police officer and their
special equipment, special assistance to
court and prosecutors and incidental
service to highway users.
Court Traffic Law Enforcement – The
part of traffic law enforcement
performed by the court by adjudication
and penalization.
Goals of Enforcement Activities
a. To increase safety level.
b. To increase traffic efficiency.
c. To ensure harmonious and
comfortable environment.
Objectives of Traffic Enforcement:
1. Preventive Activities – such as
preventive patrols, directing, supervising
traffic, investigating accidents and
eliminating road hazards.
2. Persuasive Activities – such as oral,
written warning or visible patrols.
3. Punitive Activities – normally dealt
with by the courts, police or traffic
authorities.
Traffic Law Enforcement System
The enforcement to traffic law is a complex
procedure. There are areas many methods or
enforcement and various methods of testing
their effects.
Two major Functions of Traffic Law
Enforcement
1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement: PNP-TMP
and LTO-LES
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement: Done by
any court where traffic cases fall under their
jurisdiction and the LTO-TAS
Major Elements of Traffic Enforcement
System
1. Enforcement System – consist of the
legislation, police, and the court.
2. Road Users System (Traffic Way
User)
3. Traffic System – consist of the entire
road and vehicle complex, as well as
traffic rules and regulations.
Essential Steps in Police Court
Enforcement Process
1. Detection
2. Apprehension
3. Prosecution
4. Adjudication
5. Penalization
Traffic Laws and the Role of Enforcement:
Enforcement is a complex activity because
it deals directly with human behavior. It is
concerned with people, attitudes, habits,
personality and motives. In order to deal with
law violations effectively, it is necessary to
understand something about the following:
1. The first laws concerning driving behavior
which were developed mostly from
experience over the years resulted from
custom and common usage.
2. Traffic laws, like all other laws, reflect the
beliefs, behavior and standard agreed on by
society.
3. Traffic law violation is classified into two (2)
groups:
a. Hazardous traffic law violation – any
violation of any law, ordinance, or regulation
affecting the use or protection of the streets
and highways enacted primarily to regulate the
safe movement of vehicles and pedestrians.
There are two general kinds of hazardous
violations:
a.1. Unsafe behavior
a.2. Unsafe condition
b. Other traffic law violations – are
violations of any law, ordinance or
regulation affecting the use and
protection of street or highways but
which are not enacted primarily to
regulate safe movement of vehicles and
pedestrians.
Why People Violate Traffic Laws:
1. Physical disabilities and infirmities
2. Ignorance of laws, rules and regulations
3. Mental disorder
4. Lack of training and experience
5. Wrong attitude towards driving
6. Habitual traffic violators
7. PUV driver’s for increase compensation
and commission
Deterrent Act to Traffic Violators
1. Fear of fine and punishment
2. Loss of driving privilege
3. Possibility of being involved in
accident
4. Positive area of good citizenship,
doing what is right and setting an
example.
Enforcement makes Drivers believe in two
ways:
1. Observation Effect – If a driver sees a police
officer or identifiable police vehicle, he is
reminded that he must obey the law or suffer
the consequences. Few drivers violate traffic
laws when they are in the presence of police
officer.
2. By Reputation –If enforcement is steady and
active over a long period of time drivers develop
the feeling that their risk of being apprehended
at any time is high. It is the “influence by
reputation” that enforcement strives to attain.
 Kinds of Enforcement
Actions:
1. Traffic Arrest if:
a. Offense committed is serious.
b. Detection is necessary to avoid continued
violation.
c. There is reasonable doubt that the violator will
not appear in court.
2. Traffic Citation
In case of traffic violation, the officer should
confiscate the violator’s driver’s license and
issue: Traffic Citation Ticket (TCT), Temporary
Operator’s Permit (TOP) or Traffic Violator’s
Receipt (TVR).
The Violator Should Report and Claim his/her
license to any of the following:
1. Traffic Court, if in Manila and for violation of the
City’s Traffic Ordinance.
2. City/Provincial Prosecutor, if in chartered
cities or provincial capitals without traffic courts,
for violations of traffic ordinance.
3. Municipal Court, in municipalities, for violation
of local traffic ordinances.
4. LTO Central Office (TAS) for Metro Manila or
its counterpart (RTAS) for violation of Land
Transportation and Traffic Code (R.A. 4136).
3. Traffic Warning

The three kinds of warning are:

a. Visual Warning – gesture of the hand, and
of the head, a toot of the horn that you are
aware of the violation.
b. Verbal Warning – are really a form of
safety education. You tell the violator that he
has violated the law and explain the hazards
of such actions. They are frequently used
when there is a new enforcement program
going into effect and the preliminary phase
calls for a period of public education.
c. Written Warning – are combination of
verbal warning and citations.
Decision Enforcement
1. Degree of violation
2. Accuracy of observation
3. Traffic weather condition
4. Evidenced gathered
5. Whether a new law or not
Itemized Identification of Features of Vehicle
1. Color
2. Year of Manufacture
3. Make- Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu etc…
4. Body type- Wagon, Truck, 4dr Sedan
5. License Plate Number
6. Outstanding Features and Accessories
7. Unusual Features of the Driver
Traffic Patrol
That part of police traffic supervision which
consist of driving and walking here and there
in an area or to and from on a road for the
purpose of traffic law enforcement and to
provide traffic connected service to the public.
Objectives of Traffic Patrol:
1. Deterring violation and dangerous driving.
2. Detecting and apprehending violators.
3. Observing and reporting of traffic condition.
4. Observing and reporting road condition.
5. Providing certain services to the public
handling emergencies and keeping traffic.
Types of Traffic Patrol
1. Line Patrol – is a moving patrol or a
stationary observation on a specified
road between two points usually on one
City Street or a section of a highway.
2. Area Patrol – traffic patrol or stationary
patrol observation in an area or beat
which includes a number of streets,
roads or sections on a highway.
Stationary Traffic Observation
It is an observation of traffic
conditions of selected place, usually
one with an unfavorable accident
experiences or traffic flow supervision. It
is for traffic law enforcement purposes
and to detect violations of to deter
possible violators.
Types of Stationary Observation
1. Conspicuous Traffic Observation – it is a
stationary observation in which the observer
tries to attract attention by keeping in full view
of traffic.
2. Visible Traffic Observation – it is a
stationary in which the observer is in full view
but located, for example, on a side street, as
to require effort on the part of traffic to
discover the observer.
3. Conceal Traffic Observation – it is a
stationary observation in which the observer
is not visible to persons using ordinary
powers of observation from the road way
being observed.
Pursuit in Traffic Enforcement
1. Decision type and seriousness of
violation is an important factor to
pursuit.
2. Pursuit techniques.
3. Safety driving pursuit.
Stopping and Approaching Traffic
Violator:
1. Stopping a violator must be done with
consideration to your safety, the driver
you stopped, to other drivers and
pedestrians.
2. Approach the violator preferably on
the left side from the rear and be alert
for the unexpected.
Traffic Road Check
1. Objectives: to detect or inspect the
following:
a. Faulty vehicle equipment.
b. Registration and licensing violation.
c. Intoxication or cargo of commercial or
transportation for load weight.
2. Consideration during road check
a. Minimum delay to motorist.
b. Thorough checking procedure.
c. Protecting and safety of both motorist and
officer.
d. Timing, location and frequency.
Officer-Violator Relationship
1. Two objectives in dealing with violator:
a. Immediate objectives – is enforcement
action against the driver.
b. Ultimate objectives – is to change his future
driving behavior.

Note: An officer seldom gets complaints on the

violation but usually on the manner in which
he treated the violator.
2. Important points to remember:
a. Violators are vastly different from one
another.
b. There are many conflicts in a violator
as there are in an officer.
c. You are professional officer. There
are no professional violators.
d. Be alert for the unexpected.
 Traffic Supervision,
Direction and Control
Traffic Supervision – Keeping order on the street and
highway within existing regulations to make their use
safe and expeditious.

All men on the department should be trained to direct

traffic at the following:
a. Accident scene
b. Other emergencies
c. Planned special events
d. Regular point and interrogation control
e. Directing pedestrian’s movement
Supervised Route – Any street or highway
on which traffic is supervised to some
considerable degree.

Police Traffic Direction – It is defined as

telling drivers and pedestrians how and
where they may or may not move or stand
at a particular place, especially during
periods of congestion or emergencies.
 Traffic Engineering

Application of the Objectives of Traffic

Engineering:
1. Habitually congested commercial areas.
2. Heavily traveled thorough fares.
3. Congested local areas and intersection.
4. Special occasions of events.
5. Disasters or emergencies.
6. School crossing.
Methods in Achieving the Objectives of
T-Engineering:
1. Planning and geometric design
factor employed in planning
a. Composition of traffic streams
b. Traffic volumes for capacity
c. Origin and destination
2. Factors influencing design
a. Composition of traffic
b. Volume of traffic
c. Speed of vehicles
d. The starting, turning and stopping
abilities of traffic
e. Performance values
3. Regulation and control traffic regulation
a. Base and confined within the boundaries of
safety, public welfare and convenience.
b. Limitations impose on road users and their
load
c. Basic general rule of the road use and
conduct
c.1 Speed
c.2 Overtaking and passing
c.3 Right of way
c.4 Lateral placement
c.5 Pedestrian right and duties
c.6 General parking rules and regulations
d. Prohibited and restrictions
d.1 One way regulation
d.2 Speed control
d.3 Curb parking
d.4 Turning regulation
d.5 Stop rule and others
Methods of Highway Traffic Control
I. Traffic signs
Length of Sign Board- 750/9500mm
Height- 6ft. /2M
International Traffic Signs (1968 United
Nation’s Convention in Vienna, Austria
on Road Signs)
A. Danger Warning Signs (Caution
Signs) – These signs are intended to
warn road users of a danger that lies
ahead and of its nature.
This signs have an equilateral
triangular shape with one sided
horizontal and having red borders.
B. Regulatory Signs – These are round
shape signs (except Stop and Yield sign)
intended to warn road users of special
obligations, restrictions or prohibitions with
which they must comply. They are subdivided
into:
1. Priority Signs – These are intended to
regulate priority over a particular road section
of roadway intersection. Ex.: Stop sign and
Yield Sign.
2. Prohibitory Signs – These signs can be used
on specified section if the road which will be
easily seen by motorist to indicate regulation
which is prohibitive or restrictive in nature. Ex.:
No entry for bicycles and No parking.
3. Mandatory Signs – These signs are intended
to notify the road users of special rules in which
they must comply for the safety convenience
and smooth flow of traffic. Ex.: Compulsory
speed limit and directions which vehicles are
obliged to follow.
C. Informative Signs (Guide or Direction Signs) –
These rectangular shape signs (white-colored
on blue background for informative and green
background for route markers and destination
signs) are intended to guide road users while
traveling. Ex.:
1. Advance Signs
2. Direction Signs
3. Place Identification Signs- Ex.: Hospital Signs
II. Pavement markings- It pertains to all
lines, patterns, words, colors or other
gadgets excepts signs set into the
surface or applied upon or attached to
the pavement or curbing or to objects
within or adjacent to the roadway,
officially placed for the purpose of
regulating, warning or guiding traffic.
Types of Pavement Markings and Markers
1. Pavement Markings

Types of Pavement Markings

a. Single White Dotted Line
b. Single White Continuous Line in a Two-lane Traffic
c. Single Continuous Line on a Four-lane Road
d. Double Yellow Line or Double White Line with Dotted
line in between
e. Single Yellow or White with a dotted line
f. Crosswalk or Pedestrian Lane
g. Directional Arrows
h. Stop Lines
i. Barrel Lines
2. Curb Markings for restrictions- It is
placed on the curbs or edges of the
traffic for restriction or for parking
regulation.
3. Object markings- It is placed on
objects on the road or beside the road
like humps, rocks or similar hazardous
objects.
4. Reflectorized Markings
III. Traffic Signal
3.1. Hand Signals
3.2. Whistle Signal
a. One long blast for STOP
b. Two short snappy blasts for GO
c. Three blasts to be used for
assistance and/or for motorist to be
attentive.
3.2. Traffic Signal Lights- it refers to
power operated traffic control device by
which traffic warned or directed to take
some specific actions.
Lester Wire- Developed the first world
electric traffic lights in 1912 in Salt Lake
City, Utah USA.
1918- New York City put up the first
automatic (three colored) lights then
followed by Britain in 1926 until at
present.
Order of Traffic Lights (from the top):
Red-Yellow (amber)-Green
Meaning of Traffic Lights
Steady RED and Flashing Red:
a. STOP
b. Vehicles will be crossing from the other
side
c. Expect pedestrians to cross
d. For flashing red, proceed when clear
Steady Green:
a. GO
b. Expect vehicles on the other lane stop.
c. Expect no pedestrians crossing.

Steady Yellow:
a. Prepare to STOP or GO
b. It is the same as yield.
Rationale: It’s just a matter of alternating
GO and STOP signal so that driver gets
his fair share.
IV. Priority Control- Ex.: Truck Ban
V. Restraints- Ex.: Islands, Humps to
discourage high speed
Traffic Islands
These are areas within the roadway
constructed in a manner to establish
physical channels through which
vehicular traffic is guided.
Types of Traffic Islands
a. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers)
b. Traffic Islands
b.1. Division Island
b.2. Channelizing island
b.3. Rotary
Disadvantages of Traffic Installation
1. Increase total intersection delay. (Off-peak
period)
2. Probable increase of accident in certain types.
3. Cause unnecessary delay. (Rear-end collision)
4. Use of less adequate routes maybe included in
an attempt to avoid such signals.
Primary Aims of Signal Control
1. To reduce traffic conflicts and delay.
2. To reduce accidents.
3. To economize police time.
Road Classification
1. According to Political Subdivision
a. National Roads – The main road as medium
system.
b. Provincial Roads – The linkages between
two municipalities.
c. City Roads – The inter-link between
municipalities and within the city proper.
d. Municipal Roads – All roads within the town
proper.
e. Barangay Roads – Commonly called farm to
market road.
2. According to Topographical Terrain
a. Flat road
b. Zigzag road
c. Steep-hill climbing road
d. Down-hill road
e. Winding road
f. Mountainous road
g. Roller-coaster road
 Traffic Environment

Environment is the foundation of man’s

survival and its destruction put man to
end. Man is warden of environment and
therefore, he is destined to ensure the
preservation of these natural and
inordinate values toward a better human
future.
External Factors
1. The heat – It is a form of energy which
causes the body to rise temperature, to fuse
and evaporate that can excite emotionally the
driver’s skill while behind the wheels.
2. The storm – This atmospheric disturbance
with strong winds and rains is usually
accompanied by thunder and lightning. At the
height of heavy downpour and heavy rains
the visual range is limited impairing his
effective control of the vehicle.
3. The fog – Unlike the cloud which is visible
mass above the earth’s surface, fog is
condensing water vapor in cloud like masses
that form closed to the ground.
Internal factors
All road risk factors, the driver’s behavior
plays a critical role on the road safety.
Internal factor is a behavioral pattern of man
which appears early in life. Many voices are
advocating the hypothesis of relationship
between the reaction of the individual to
environmental forces is dependent upon the
strength and weakness of the driver’s internal
factor.
Common internal factors that cause road
accident are:
1. The personality – Through the corridor of
the ages, driver is likened as the king of the
road. Driver’s skill can be derailed depending
upon the quality or state of his total being as
a person, his personality. His personality is
best tested when confronted by the greatest
chances of the environmental factors.
2. The character
3. The epileptic driver – It is define as a
chronic nervous disorder of the human
brain affecting man’s consciousness
and muscular control with various
degrees of severity.
4. Sleeping Sickness – A chronic
disease occurring in tropical countries
like Africa.
 Traffic Economy

Economics oils the wheels of traffic. It is

not a mere shadow of force but the
centrifugal force that dictates the success or
failure of traffic governance. Time has come
that economics of traffic be rescued from the
lack of interest of wrong perceptions. Expert
must have an open mind not just limited to
the narrow confines of 3E’s in traffic and
refuse to look beyond the costly illusion of its
advocates.
Traffic Accidents
Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents
Victims
`
Other Causes of Accidents
 Traffic Accident
Investigation
To know what questions to ask and what to look
for, you must have some fundamental bearing
on accidents and their causes. When you speak
of a traffic accident, everybody knows what you
mean – something went wrong on the highway,
either a car is wrecked; somebody is injured or
possibly killed. In this regard as traffic law
enforcer, you should have knowledge about
traffic accident and the relevant investigation
procedure.
Accident
It is the occurrence in a sequence of
events which usually produces unintended
injury, death, or property damage.
Traffic Accident
It refers to an accident involving travel
transportation on a traffic way.
Motor Vehicle Accident
It refers to an events resulting in unintended
injury or property damage attributable directly
or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or
its loads.
Motor Vehicle
Any device which is self-propelled and every
vehicle which is propelled by electric power
obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not
operated upon rails.
Key Event
It refers to an event on the road which
characterizes the manner of occurrence of a
motor vehicle traffic accident.
Debris
Any scattered broken parts of vehicles,
rubbish, dust and other materials left at the
scene of the accident caused by collision.
Traffic Unit
Any person using a traffic way for travel,
parking or other purposes as a pedestrian or
driver, including any vehicle, or animal which
he is using.
Strategy
It is the adjusting of speed, position on the
road, and direction of motion, giving signals
of intent to turn or slow down, or any other
action in situations involving potential
hazards.
Tactic
Any action taken by a traffic unit to avoid
hazardous situations like steering, braking, or
accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.
Factor
Any circumstances contributing to a result
without which the result could not have
occurred or it is an element necessary to
produce the result, but not by itself sufficient.
Cause
The combination of simultaneous and
sequential factors without any one
which result could not have occurred.
Attributes
Any inherent characteristics of a road,
vehicle, or a person that affects the
probability of a traffic accident.
Tire Marks
Three Major Parts
1. Tire Marks
2. Skid Marks/Acceleration Scuff - These are
marks left on the roadway by tires which are not
free to rotate, usually because brakes are
applied strong and the wheels locked.
– Gap Skid
– Skip Skid
3. Scuff Marks (Side Skid Mark )
Other Tire Marks
Yaw Marks (Striations)
Centrifugal Skid Marks
Kinds of Traffic Accidents
1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident
3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident
Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic
Accident According to Key Event
1. Running off road- Ex.: Vehicle falling on
roadside or on a cliff.
2. Non-collision on road- Ex.: Overturning
3. Collision on the road- Ex.: Vehicle to
Pedestrian etc…
Classification of Accidents According
to Severity
1. Property damage accident
2. Slight
3. Non-fatal injury accident
4. Less Serious
5. Serious
6. Fatal
Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents
1. Simultaneous Factors
a. Road Condition
b. Driver’s attitude or behavior
c. Weather condition
2. Sequential Factors
a. Speed is greater or less than safe
b. Defective Vehicles
3. Operational Factors
a. Road hazards
b. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws
4. Perception Hazards
a. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a
situation
b. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision
course.
Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident
First: Perception of Hazards
Second: Start of Evasive Action
Third: Initial Contact
Fourth: Maximum Engagement
Fifth: Disengagement
Sixth: Stopping
Seventh: Injury
5 Levels of Activity in Accident
Investigation
1. Reporting- Basic data collection
2. At-scene Investigation
3. Technical Preparation- Organization for
study and interpretation
4. Professional Reconstruction
Traffic Accident Reconstruction (How)
It is the effort to determine, from whatever
information is available, how the accident
happened. Describing the event of the
accident, in more or less detail, is the aim of
accident reconstruction. It is important much
more if there is no eye witness to the incident.
This involves attempting to determine, for
each vehicle or pedestrian involved, such
particulars as:
 a. Position on the road
b. Facing or heading direction
c. Speed
d. Direction travel
e. Acceleration or deceleration
f. Rotation
5. Cause analysis
Traffic Accident Analysis (Why)
Accident analysis is a detail study made
to determine the factors contributing to
the occurrence of accidents. Proper
identification of contributory factors is
needed in implementing measures to
prevent the occurrence or mitigate the
effect of accidents.
 Traffic Accident
Investigation Process
Step One – Upon arrival at the scene of the
accident get the facts from the bystanders or
complainants: Answer the following (5W and
1H):
a. What happened?
b. Who and what was involved?
c. When did it happen?
d. Why it happened?
e. Where did it happen?
f. How the accident occurred?
Step Two
A. Preliminary questions to drivers:
1. Who was driving and which vehicle?
2. Look for signs of nervousness,
confusions and intoxication.
B. Gather clues for identifying hit-and-run
vehicles.
C. Question other witnesses.
D. Examine driver’s condition.
1. Check license and record data.
2. Check registration certificate and record
data.
3. Verify ownership.
4. Account step-by-step what happened.
E. Position or condition of vehicles.
1. Lights and light switches.
2. Gear position and tires.
3. Mark position of vehicles if they must be
moved.
4. Look for unusual thing inside the vehicle.
F. Form preliminary opinion as to how
traffic accident occurred.
G. Photograph skid marks and locations
for later measuring.
H. Record place to which injured persons
or damage vehicles were or will be
taken.
Step Three – After getting short live evidence:
A. Make a test skid.
B. Decide whether proof of violation is sufficient
for arrest. If so, make arrest or issue citation
ticket.
C. Complete examination of vehicles involved.
D. Locate key event or point of impact of
accident.
E. Make additional photographs of the following:
1. Vehicle damage.
2. View obstruction.
3. Present condition.
4. Control devices.
F. Measure for scale diagram of location.
G. Get additional facts at the scene of the
incident.
H. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone.
Step Four – After leaving the scene:
A. Get a medical report of injuries from
the hospital or doctor.
B. Notify the following:
1. Relatives of dead or injured person.
2. Owner/operator of the vehicle.
C. Have photograph developed.
D. Have specimen analyzed, if any were
taken, have chemical test.
E. Complete the report of accident.
1. Have copies made if necessary.
2. File report and copies.
F. Complete factual data on investigation report if
not completed at the scene.
G. Reconstruct the accident.
1. Estimate speed of vehicles involved.
2. Draw scale diagram.
3. Analyze angle of collision.
4. Get technical help if necessary.
5. Summarize opinions.
H. Complete report of investigation (file
report and notes)
I. Inform other agencies of department of
any condition at the scene which needs
attention for safety.
Step Five – If the case go to court:
A. Find out what the prosecutor wants to
straighten evidence.
B. Return to the scene of the accident if
necessary for the following:
1. Additional photograph
2. Long lived evidence.
3. Measurement for scale diagram for use of
court.
4. Look for additional witnesses and review their
testimony and;
4.a Relatives and friends who could confirm
activities.
4.b Technicians who developed pictures,
made chemical test, etc.
4.c Expert who could help.
C. Pre-trial conference with prosecutor witness.
D. Testify in court.
E. Organized and file papers, for future
references.
Step to Take in Case of Injury
1. Stop the arterial bleeding.
2. Ask help if needed.
3. Protect the injured from exposure.
4. Cordon the scene of the accident.
Traffic Accident Investigation Report
A. Uniform traffic accident reporting system.
B. Preparation of traffic accident report.
1. By a competent bonafide traffic accident
investigator.
2. Requirements for an investigator in the
submission of report such as evidence
gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as a
sworn statements of witnesses.
3. Traffic accident investigation report will be
accomplished if five copies or more is
necessary.
3.a One copy for the investigator.
3.b One copy for the record section of the
Traffic Management Office.
3.c One copy for the office of the
prosecutor/court.
3.d One copy for the Traffic Operation
Center.
3.e One copies each for the insurance
companies of the parties involved.
Coefficient of Friction:
The measurement of the relationship
between the rubber and the road
expressed in percentage of efficiency is
universally referred to as coefficient of
friction. Some traffic moguls
denominated it as Drag Factor.
Friction
It is defined as the resistance between the
tire and the roadway that determine the
minimum speed of the vehicle after
acceleration/deceleration and sudden
change of direction.
The amount of rubber worn from the tire tread depends
upon the amount of friction on the road. Invariably, the
coefficient of friction is affected by the type, kind, design
of the road surface and by natural man made factors,
these are:
1. Type of surface: asphalted, cemented, sandy or dirt
road.
2. Kind of surface: wet, dry, snowy or icy.
3. Design: slope, downhill and others.
4. Temperature: Hot, cold and humid.
5. Natural disaster: flood, mudflow, landslide, and lahar
flow.
6. Contamination of surface: oil residue, gas leak, fruit
peels and other foreign bodies spread on the road
surface.
Warren E. Clark
Lead development and validated a
formula to determine the coefficient of
friction in a given roadway that answers
the question: What is the speed of the
vehicle before the accident?
Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor
F= S²
30(D)

Grade or Slope (Gradient)

f= Horizontal distance
Vertical rise or fall
Speed Calculation

S= 5.5 √DF= (speed on a level road)

S= 5.5 √DF(+/-F)= (up or downhill)
Sample Problem:
A driver of a Toyota Tamaraw FX while traversing
down along Maharlika Highway suddenly steps
on the brake when a young boy ran across the
path. In the process, the vehicle skidded before
hitting the boy. When the skid mark was
measured, it yields 55ft long markings. Applying
the formulas for speed calculations, find for the
approximate speed of the Toyota Tamaraw FX
before it skidded if: 1) the skid mark of the
motor vehicle when tested at 30mph is 35 ft;
and 2) the vertical fall of the highway is 1.5 ft.
1. Compute first the drag factor. Use
the figures used during the test skid:

F= S = 30² = 900= .86

30(D) 30(35ft) 1050
2. Calculate for the gradient because
the highway is downhill:

f= Horizontal distance= 1ft = .67

Vertical fall 1.5 ft
3. Then, compute the speed by using
the formula since the highway is
downhill, add the computed “f”:

S= √5.5 DF (+F)
4. Then Substitute:
S= 5.5 √55ft x .86) + .67
S= 5.5 √47.3 + .67
S= 5.5 √47.97
S= 5.5 (6.93)
S= 38.12mph
This formula has gained acceptance and
validation by the decisional doctrine as
enunciated in the leading case of People vs.
Herman before the Traffic Magistrate City
Court, New York City, 20 N.Y.S.(2nd) 174
N.Y. Misc.235. This ruling appears to
influence many countries to take official
cognizance of the admissibility of skid marks
as evidentiary tool to determine the minimum
speed of the vehicle before the vehicular
accident.
• Classification of Accident According to
Severity:
• 1. Fatal Accident – any motor vehicle
accident that results in death to one or more
person.
• 2. Non-fatal Accident – any motor
vehicle accident that results in injuries other
than fatal (death) to one or more persons.
• 3. Property Damage Accident – is any
motor vehicle accident where there is no
death or injury to any person but only to the
motor vehicle or to other property including
injury or death to animal.
Hit-and-run Investigation:
Hit-and-run commonly applied to driver
who failed to stop after a road accident.
It is the failure to yield to any officer
within reasonable time: the gravamen or
the keystone which make the driver
liable.
Settled is the rule, that the non-stopping
of the driver after the accident has the
legal presumption of evading social and
moral responsibilities as mandated by
law, in effect, several legal actions can
be filed against the hit-and-run driver,
among them are:
 1. Abandonment of one’s victim.
2. Failure to lend assistance to the injured
parties.
3. Reckless imprudence resulting to
homicide.
4. Reckless imprudence resulting to damage
to properties.
5. Failure to render assistance to victim.
6. Violation of Section 55, R.A. 4136 as
amended.
7. Civil liability of a person guilty of felony.
A Good Reason of Bringing Hit-and-
Run Driver’s to Justice:
1. Increase public support for traffic work.
2. Enable people to appraise result to
traffic law enforcement.
3. Provides victim a chance to receive
compensation for injuries and losses
sustained.
Nature of Common Hit-and-Run Cases:
1. Run over of pedestrian crossing on marked
crosswalk.
2. Sideswiped of pedestrian on the sidewalk.
3. Collided with a moving vehicle while
overtaking on same direction.
4. Collided with a moving vehicle while
overtaking on opposite direction.
5. Damage parked vehicle along the roadside.
6. Crushed police road-blocks.
7. Bumped stray animal on the roadway.
How to Delimit the Scope of
Investigation from the Wide Universe
of Unknown:
Given: A pedestrian when run-over by a
speeding vehicle while crossing the
marked cross-walk at 1:00 PM. Blood,
splintered glass and debris were
splattered on the pavement near the
victim.
Unknown:
1. the victim’s identification
2. the kind of vehicle
3. the make of vehicle
4. the model of vehicle
5. the registered vehicle
6. the driver
7. the eyewitness
The absence of informant or eyewitness is not a
plausible reason for the crime to be unsolved.
There is no perfect crime only imperfect
investigation. For every crime the criminals
always leave imprints of his act.
Prosecution of Cases:
Traffic accident investigator has the
sole responsibility in the filing of cases to
the proper authorities in case of Fatal and
Non-fatal Accident including hit-and-run.
For Property Damage the filing is
dependent upon the discretion of the
complaining party (either the complainant
or the police investigator) within one year
from the date of the accident.
 In case of Death or Physical Injury
incurred during the Traffic Vehicular
Accident whether regular or hit and run
investigation, upon the arrest of the
accused he must be delivered to the
Proper Judicial Authorities within the
prescribed period as provided for under
the law.
Court Duty:
Traffic accident investigator will be
summoned to appear before the court and
there and then testify to the case he had
investigated. The investigator must be in
complete police prescribed uniform. He must
be fully aware of the case in issue. During the
trial, he will be subjected to a direct and cross
examination by the prosecution and the
defense counsel.
 Traffic Laws, Rules and
Regulations
Sources
Republic Acts
1. R.A. 4136- Land Transportation Code of the Philippines.
It has repealed Act No. 3992 (The Revised Motor
Vehicle Law).
2. R.A. 6539- Anti-Carnapping Act of 1972.
3. R.A. 5448- Act imposing a tax on privately owned
passenger automobiles, motorcycles and scooters, and
a science stamp tax to constitute a special science
fund…
4. R.A. 8749- Also known as the “Clean Air Act”.
5. R.A. 8750- Seat Belt Law
6. R.A. 7924- Act creating Metropolitan Manila
Development Authority (MMDA).
4. R.A. 8749- Also known as the “Clean
Air Act”.
5. R.A. 8750- Seat Belt Law
6. R.A. 7924- Act creating Metropolitan
Manila Development Authority (MMDA).
Presidential Decrees
1. P.D. 96- Regulating the use of sirens, bells,
horns etc… exceptions to vehicles belonging to
the AFP, NBI, LTO, PNP, BJMP, Hospitals and
BFP and are specifically intended for use in
emergencies.
2. P.D. 207- Declaring parts of the laws of the
Philippines the Vienna Convention on Road
Traffic, signs and signals.
3. P.D. 612- Requiring compulsory insurance for
all types of motor vehicles against third party
liability…
4. P.D. 1181- Providing for the abatement
of air pollution from motor vehicles and
for other purposes.
5. P.D. 98- Regulating the issuance of
license plates of all motor vehicles as
modified by P.D. 109.
6. P.D. 1729- Authorizing the Bureau of
Land Transportation to dispose
impounded motor vehicles unclaimed for
a certain period of time.
Letters of Instruction
1. L.O.I. 43- Providing for the removal of all
impediments on roads, streets and highways
such as construction, stalled parked vehicles
and other movable objects that obstruct free
passage.
2. L.O.I. 112- Prohibiting freight and cargo trucks
from using roads, highways and bridges whose
load capacities are in excess of specific
allowable limits.
3. L.O.I. 716- Every motor vehicle to equip at
least a pair of EWD.
Memorandum Circulars
1. M.C. 94-188- Issuance of driver’s license to
disabled persons.
2. M.C. 94-192- Diesel smoke emission test for
motor vehicles.
Executive orders
1. E.O. 202- Creating the land Transportation
Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB).
2. E.O. 248- Empowering the LTC to control
and supervise the operations of Motor
Vehicle Driving Schools.
Others
1. Batas Pambansa Blg. 344- Act to
enhancing the mobility of disabled
persons by requiring certain buildings,
institutions, establishments and public
utilities to install facilities and other laws.
2. Memorandum Unnumbered dated July
13, 1992- Early Warning Device is not a
requirement for registration.
3. SC Bars Lawmen from removing Car
Plates (187 SCRA 432)
Expedishoes

Newly Invented Vehicle as

of 2009
THE
END !!