Programming Fundamentals

Program Structure

2019-11-10
by

Programming Fundamentals by
SHEHZAD LATIF (03134797617)
SHEHZAD LATIF
Assistant Professor,
Hajvery University – Lahore
Email: [email protected]

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C++ & C
 C++ is derived from the C language.

 It is a superset of C

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• Almost every correct statement in C is also a

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correct statement in C++

 The most important elements added to C to create

C++ concern classes, objects, and object-oriented

programming.

• C++ was originally called “C with classes.”

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Basics of a typical
C++ Environment

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It consist of 6 phases

• Editor

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• Preprocessor

• Compilers

• Linkers

• Loaders

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• Execute
 Program is created in the
Editor Disk editor and stored on disk.
Preprocessor program
Preprocessor Disk processes the code.
Compiler creates
Compiler Disk object code and stores

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it on disk.
Linker Disk Linker links the object
code with the libraries

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Primary Memory
Loader
Loader puts program
in memory.
Disk ..
..
..

Primary Memory
CPU takes each
CPU instruction and
executes it, possibly
storing new data
..
.. values as the 4
..
program executes.
Edit

• The first phase consist of editing a file.

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• The programmer types a C++ program with editor.

• The program source file is then stored on secondary storage device

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such as disk.

• C++ program file names often end with .cpp

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 Compile
• Next, the programmer gives the command to compile the program.

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• The compiler translates the C++ program into machine language code.

• In C++ system

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• A preprocessor program executes automatically before the compiler’s translation

phase begins.

• Preprocessor obeys commands called preprocessor directives.

• Indicates that certain manipulations are to be performed on the program

before compilation.
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Linker

• The preprocessor is invoked by the compiler before the program

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is converted to machine language.

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• The next phase is called linking.

• A linker links the object code with the code for the missing

functions to produce an executable image.

• If the program compiles and links correctly, an executable image

is produced.

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Loader
• The next phase is called loading.

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• Before a program can be executed, the program must first be

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placed in memory. This is done by the loader, which takes the

executable image from disk and transfers it to memory.

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Execute
• Finally, the computer executes the program one instruction at a time.

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Basic Program
Construction

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• Compilers take source code and transform it into executable files, which your

computer can run as it does other programs.

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• Source files are text files (extension .CPP)

• Executable files have the .EXE extension

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 Your First Program

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Preprocessor Directives

The first two lines that begin the program are preprocessor directives.

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e.g., #include <iostream.h>

#include <conio.h>

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It isn’t a program statement
It isn’t a part of a function body
It does not end with a semicolon

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Program Statement vs
Preprocessor Directive
• Program statements are instructions to the computer to do

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something, such as adding two numbers or printing a sentence.

• A preprocessor directive, on the other hand, is an instruction to

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the compiler.

• A part of the compiler called the preprocessor deals with these

directives before it begins the real compilation process.

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Program Statement vs
Preprocessor Directive

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• The preprocessor directive #include tells the

compiler to insert another file into your source

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file.

• The type file usually included by #include is

called a header file.

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Header Files

• The preprocessor directive #include tells the compiler to add the file

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iostream to the source file before compiling.

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Why do this?

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Header Files

• iostream is an example of a header file.

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• It’s concerned with basic input/output operations, and contains declarations that

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are needed by the cout identifier and the << operator.

• Without these declarations, the compiler won’t recognize cout and will think << is

being used incorrectly

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Always Start with main()

• When you run a C++ program, the first statement executed will be at the

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beginning of a function called main().

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• The program may consist of many functions, but on startup, control always goes

to main().

• If there is no function called main() in your program, an error will be reported

when you run the program.

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Functions
• The parentheses following the word main are the distinguishing feature of a

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function.

• Without parentheses compiler would think that main refers to some other

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program element.

• The word int preceding the function name indicates that this particular

function has a return value of type int.

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Braces and the Function Body
• The body of a function is surrounded by braces (sometimes

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called curly brackets).

• Every function must use this pair of braces around the function

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body.

• In this example there are only three statements in the function

body:

• the line starting with cout, the line starting with getch and the
line starting with return.

• However, a function body can consist of many statements.

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Program Statements

• There are three statements in the FIRST program: the line

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• cout << “Hello World: My first C++ program”;

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• getch();

• and the return statement return 0;

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Output Using cout
• The identifier cout (pronounced “C out”) is actually an object. It is

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predefined in C++ to correspond to the standard output stream.

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• The operator << is called the insertion or put to operator.

• It directs the contents on its right to the object on its left.

• In our example it directs the string constant “Hello World: My first C++

program” to cout, which sends it to the display.

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String Constants

• The phrase in quotation marks, “Hello World: My first C++ program”, is

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an example of a string constant.

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• Its value is set when the program is written, and it retains this value

throughout the program’s existence.

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Program Statements

• The first statement tells the computer to display the quoted phrase.

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• A semicolon signals the end of the statement.

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• If you leave out the semicolon, the compiler will signal an error.

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Program Statements

• getch() apart from holding the screen or waiting for a character to be

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entered to exit the output screen , it also print the input given by the user.

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• The last statement in the function body is return 0;

• This tells main() to return the value 0 to whoever called it, in this case the

operating system or compiler. The value 0 indicates that the program had

terminated successfully.

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Whitespace

• Compiler ignores whitespace almost completely.

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• Whitespace is defined as spaces, tabs and newlines.

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• These characters are invisible to the compiler.

• You can put several statements on one line, separated by any

number of spaces or tabs, or you can run a statement over two or

more lines. 25
 Two new lines

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Exceptions to the rule
• The first line of the program, starting with #include, is a preprocessor directive,

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which must be written on one line.

• Also, string constants, such as “Every age has a language of its own”, cannot

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be broken into separate lines.

• If you need a long string constant, you can insert a backslash(\) at the line

break or divide the string into two separate strings, each surrounded by

quotes.

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 Backslash

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Comments

• They help the person writing a program, and anyone else who must

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read the source file, understand what’s going on.

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• The compiler ignores comments

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Comment Syntax

• Comments start with a double slash symbol (//) and terminate at the

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end of the line.

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 Alternative Comment Syntax

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SHEHZAD LATIF (03134797617)

 2019-11-10
• If you attempt to use the // style comment in this case, the closing

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brace won’t be visible to

the compiler-- since a // style comment runs to the end of the line—and

the code won’t compile correctly.

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 QUESTIONS ??

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 Outputs

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 Programming Fundamentals by
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