Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 2
Basic Chemistry

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Matter
• Anything that occupies space and has mass

Energy
• The ability to do work

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Energy

• Potential energy-
stored energy (in
bonds)
• - ATP (remove a
phosphate to release
energy)
Ex: A roller coaster on
top of a hill
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Energy
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• Kinetic energy- energy

of motion
- Temperature
(molecular movement),
Ex: boats racing

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Types of Energy
• Chemical- stored in bonds
ex.- ATP
• Electrical- flow of electrons
ex.- nervous signals
• Mechanical- movement of parts
ex.- locomotion, propulsion of substances through the
digestive system
• Radiant- waves of particles
ex.- light (necessary for vision)
- Thermal- heat
ex.- created by muscles during contraction
Why Study Matter and Energy?
-Your body is a chemical plant with millions of chemical
reactions taking place to maintain your homeostasis. It
requires matter and energy to do this.
Examples:

-Digestion: chemical breakdown of food (compounds)

into elements that can diffuse into or out of the cell
membrane

-Nervous System: movement of ions across

membranes to conduct an impulse

-Muscular System: energy used to conduct heat and

move the skeleton
Composition of Matter
• Elements
• Fundamental units of matter
• 96% of the body is made from four elements
• Carbon (C)
• Oxygen (O)
• Hydrogen (H)
• Nitrogen (N)
• Atoms
• Building blocks of elements
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.2
Atomic Structure

• Nucleus
• Protons (p+)
• Neutrons (n0)
• Outside of
nucleus
• Electrons (e-)

Figure 2.1
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.3
Identifying Elements

• Atomic number
• Equal to the number of protons that the
atoms contain
• Atomic mass number
• Sum of the protons and neutrons

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.4

Molecules and Compounds

• Molecule – two or more like atoms

combined chemically
ex.- O2, H2
• Compound – two or more different
atoms combined chemically
ex.- H2O, CO2

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.7

Chemical Bonds
• Ionic Bonds
• Form when electrons are completely
transferred from one atom to another
• Ions
• Charged particles
• Anions are negative
• Cations are positive
• Either donate or accept electrons
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.13
Chemical Bonds
• Covalent Bonds
• Atoms become stable through shared electrons
• Single covalent bonds share one electron pair
• Double covalent bonds share two electron pairs

Figure 2.6c
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.14
Examples of Covalent Bonds

Figure 2.6a, b

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.15

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Chemical Bonds

• Hydrogen bonds
• Weak chemical bonds
• Hydrogen is attracted to negative portion of
polar molecule
• Provides attraction between molecules

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.17

Patterns of Chemical Reactions
• Synthesis reaction (A+BAB)
• Atoms or molecules combine
• Energy is absorbed for bond formation
• Anabolic reaction
• Ex.- amino acids bond to form proteins
• Decomposition reaction (ABA+B)
• Molecule is broken down
• Chemical energy is released
• Catabolic reaction
• Ex.- ATP loses a phosphate, releasing energy!
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.18
Synthesis and Decomposition
Reactions

Figure 2.9a, b

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.19

Patterns of Chemical Reactions

• Exchange reaction (AB + CAC+B)

• Involves both synthesis and decomposition
reactions
• Switch is made between molecule parts
and different molecules are made
• Ex.- Glucose 6 phosphate gives up a
phosphate to ADP to make ATP
• Cellular Respiration

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.20

Biochemistry: Essentials for Life
• Inorganic compounds
• Lack carbon
• Tend to be simpler compounds
• Example: H2O (water), NaCl (sodium
chloride), CO2 (carbon dioxide), O2
(oxygen)

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• Water
• Most abundant inorganic compound
• 67% of body weight
• Vital properties
• High heat capacity- does not change
temperature easily
• Chemical reactivity- serves as a base
for reactions
• Cushioning: protective function (Brain)
• Expands when it freezes
• pH of 7 (neutral)
Water is polar:
- Good solvent- able to dissolve many
substances if they are polar

- Surface tension- water molecules

adhere to one another across its
surface

- Capillarity- water will rise up in a

tube due to cohesion and adhesion
Important Inorganic Compounds
• Salts- ionic compounds
• Easily dissociate into ions in the
presence of water
• Vital to many body functions
• Include electrolytes which conduct
electrical currents
• ex.- NaCl = sodium chloride,
Ca3(PO4)2= calcium phosphate
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.23
 Important Inorganic Compounds
• Acids
• Can release detectable hydrogen ions
(H+)
• Low pH (below 7), Taste sour
• Examples:
Common- lemon juice, coffee,
carbonic acid in soda
In body- Gastric juice, uric acid,
vitamin C, amino acids, nucleic acids,
Bases
• Proton (H+) acceptors (most have
hydroxide ions- OH-)
• High pH (above 7), Taste bitter,
Slippery
• Examples:
• Common- Tums, baking soda,
egg whites, sea water, Draino,
bleach, oven cleaner
• In body- blood, semen
pH

• Measures relative
concentration of
hydrogen ions
• pH 7 = neutral
• pH below 7 = acidic
• pH above 7 = basic
• Buffers
• Chemicals that can
regulate pH change Figure 2.11
 Organic compounds

- Contain carbon

- Most are covalently bonded

- Ex.- C6H12O6 (glucose)

Important Organic Compounds

• Carbohydrates
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in
roughly a 1:2:1 ratio
• Include sugars and starches
• Classified according to size

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.26

Important Organic Compounds
• Monosaccharides – simple sugars
• In linear or ring forms
- Glucose - Galactose
- Fructose - Deoxyribose
- Ribose
Important Organic Compounds
•Disaccharides – two simple sugars joined by
dehydration synthesis- removal of water to form a
bond (hydrogen from one and hydroxide from
another form water)

•Decomposed by hydrolysis- breaking of bonds by

adding water back in
Sucrose= Glucose and Fructose Maltose= Glucose and Glucose
Lactose= Glucose and Galactose
Important Organic Compounds
Polysaccharides – long branching
chains of linked simple sugars

Ex.-

•Starch and cellulose- plant

polysaccharides (cellulose is
indigestible)

•Glycogen- animal polysaccharide

•Stored in muscle and liver

Important Organic Compounds
• Lipids
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
• Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol
• Most are insoluble in water
• Most are non-polar
• Some have polar heads

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.29

Lipids
• Saturated- all single bonds
• Solids at room temp.
• Animal fats
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• “Pile up” on sides of

vessels
• Unsaturated- some double
bonds
• Liquids at room temp.
• Plant fats
Important Organic Compounds
• Common lipids in the human body
• Neutral fats (triglycerides)
• Found in fat deposits
• Composed of 3 fatty acids and glycerol
• Source of stored energy

Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
2.30a
Important Organic Compounds
• Common lipids in the human body
(continued)
• Phospholipids
• Form cell membranes
• Composed of:
•2 Fatty acids
•Glycerol
•Phosphate
Slide
head
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
2.30b
Lipids

Figure 2.14a, b

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.31

Steroids
- 3 interlocking 6-C rings, a 5-C ring,
and a fatty acid chain
- Ex.- cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D,

and some hormones

Figure 2.14c

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.32

Proteins
• Made of amino acids- 20 different ones
• Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
• Each amino acid differs from others by a
variable “R” group
• Form peptide bonds
through dehydration
synthesis

Slide
2.33a
Proteins
• Essential amino acids- needed in diet
• Non-essential amino acids- made in body
• Account for over half of the body’s organic
matter
• Provides for construction materials for
body tissues
• Plays a vital role in cell function
• Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
2.33b
LEVELS OF PROTEIN
STRUCTURE
PRIMARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE
- Sequence of amino acids
 SECONDARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE
-Alpha helix or beta pleated sheet
-Chain folded back on itself and held in place by hydrogen bonds
Fibrous (structural) proteins- building materials

In secondary form:
Human growth hormone
Immunoglobulins
Cytokines
Actin

In Quaternary form:
Keratin
Collagen
 TERTIARY STRUCTURE
- Secondary structure loops back on itself and bonds again
 QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
- Two or more chains in tertiary structure bonded together
Globular (functional) proteins- perform actions within the
body

Tertiary Structure:

Lactase
Myoglobin

Quaternary Structure:
Hemoglobin
Enzymes
• Act as biological catalysts
• Increase the rate of chemical reactions
• End in “–ase”
• In tertiary or quaternary structure

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Enzymes
• Substrate- the substance on which an
enzyme is acting
• Active site- the area on the enzyme to
which the substrate binds

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Enzymes

• Denature- when an enzyme unfolds

(looses its structure) and is rendered
nonfunctional
Enzymes
• Things that denature enzymes:
• Heat
• pH change
• Addition of ionic substances
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Nucleic Acids
• Composed of nucleotides
• Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
• Phosphate
• Nucleotide bases
•A = Adenine
•G = Guanine
•C = Cytosine
•T = Thymine (Only in DNA)
•U = Uracil (Only in RNA)
•A bonds to T (U), G to C
 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
• Single strand, has U instead of T, has ribose sugar

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Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Involved in the manufacture of proteins
•mRNA copies the DNA (transcription)
•tRNA brings amino acids to the mRNA to
make protein chains (translation)
•rRNA makes up ribosomes

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DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
• Contains deoxyribose
sugar, T instead of U
• The “Blueprint” of life
• Provides instruction for
every protein in the
body
• Directs growth and
development
• Contains genes
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

• Organized by
complimentary bases to
form double helix- 2
strands
• Replicates (copies
itself) before cell
division
• Makes up
chromosomes/
chromatin
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
• Chemical energy used by all cells
• Energy is released by breaking high energy
phosphate bond
• ATP is replenished by oxidation of food
fuels

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 2.37

How ATP Drives Cellular Work
• ATP has 3 phosphates
attached (P)
• Removal of a P releases
energy from the bond,
leaving ADP
• Removal of another P
releases less energy,
leaving AMP

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