GENES AND THE

GENETIC BASIS
OF METABOLISM
AND
DEVELOPMENT
Shanella Joelle
Lanzarote 2-A1
 Cell differentiation is controlled by regulating
particular genes in each type of cell.
 (A) These petals have enzymes necessary for
synthesis of pigments
 (B) These wood cells had many enzymes not found
in the petal cells of the same plant.
 (C) Chlorenchyma cells differ from other types by
having well-developed chloroplasts (×200).
 (D) These cells have differentiated such that starch
storage and release are the dominant aspects of
metabolism.
 (E) These vessels and fibers have similar, if not
identical, metabolisms for synthesis and
lignification of walls; they differ primarily in cell
shape and pattern of secondary wall deposition.
NUCLEOTIDES
 Nucleic acids contain five bases,
abbreviated T, A, G, C, and U. One base
plus a five-carbon sugar is a nucleoside, and
with a phosphate attached, a nucleoside
becomes a nucleotide:
base + sugar = nucleoside base + sugar +
phosphate = nucleotide
When DNA is synthesized,
deoxyribonucleotides—those that contain
the sugar deoxyribose—are used; when
RNA is made, ribonucleotides—containing
ribose—are used. Uracil does not occur in
DNA, and thymine is absent from RNA.
 DNA is a linear, unbranched polymer
composed of four types of deoxynucleotide
monomers, usually abbreviated A, T, G, and
C
 Once actually polymerized into DNA, the
base portion of each nucleotide monomer
protrudes as a side group. It is the sequence
of nucleotide side groups that is the
information needed to synthesize proteins
correctly
 A gene is each region of DNA that is
responsible for coding the amino acid
sequence in a particular protein. Each type
of protein has its own gene
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNIQUES
(GENETIC ENGINEERING)
 are helping us understand the
processes that occur between the
perception of a stimulus and the
plant’s response to that stimulus.
 recombinant DNA techniques permit
us to change features of plants—for
example, making them more resistant
to insects or having seeds and fruits
that are more nutritious for us
STORING GENETIC
INFORMATION
PROTECTING THE GENES
 DNA does not participate directly in protein
synthesis
 Most DNA is stored in the nucleus, protected
from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope
 Histone proteins hold most nuclear DNA in an
inert, resistant form.
THE GENETIC CODE
 The genetic code is almost perfectly universal; all
organisms and genetic systems but one share the
genetic code.
 Viruses, prokaryotes, fungi, animals, and plants all
use the same codons to specify particular amino
acids, and the same is true for plastid DNA.
 Only in mitochondria are several codons changed.
This almost universal commonality of the genetic
code is one of the strongest pieces of evidence that
life arose only once on Earth and that all living
organisms have evolved from one ancestral
organism.
THE STRUCTURE OF GENES
 Most genes, up to 90% in any cell, are quiescent
most of the time and are activated and read only
when the cell needs the particular enzymes they
code for. Each gene must have a structure that
allows controlling substances to recognize the
gene, bind to it, and activate it at the proper
time.
TRANSCRIPTION OF GENES
 Transcription is the first step of DNA based gene
expression in which a particular segment of DNA
is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA
polymerase.
 This is done by breaking the hydrogen bonds
between complementary DNA nucleotides.
 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 In the process of protein synthesis, ribosomes
bind to mRNA and “read” its codons. Guided by
the information in the nucleotide sequence of the
mRNA, the ribosomes catalyze the
polymerization of amino acids in the order
specified by the gene from which the mRNA was
transcribed.
RIBOSOMES
 Ribosomes are small particles that “read” the
genetic message in mRNA and construct proteins
guided by that information.
 Each is composed of two subunits, one larger
than the other, and each is made up of both
proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
TRNA
 During protein synthesis, amino acids are carried
to ribosomes by ribonucleic acids called transfer
RNA (tRNA).
 tRNAs are necessary because a codon cannot
interact directly with an amino acid; the genetic
code can be read only by a ribonucleic acid that
has a three-nucleotide sequence, called an
anticodon, that is complementary to and
hydrogen bonds to the codon
MRNA TRANSLATION
 Initiation of Translation- The synthesis of a
protein molecule by ribosomes under the guidance
of mRNA is called translation. Protein synthesis
begins with a complex initiation process involving
the start codon AUG. This codes for the amino acid
methionine, but two types of tRNA actually carry
methionine, and they have different properties.
 Elongation of the Protein Chain- mRNA lies in
a channel between the two ribosome subunits.
Extending outward from the mRNA channel are
two grooves, each wide enough for a tRNA to fit
into it such that the tRNA anticodon can touch an
mRNA codon. When both channels contain
activated tRNAs, adjacent codons are being read
CONTROL OF PROTEIN
LEVELS
 As cells undergo differentiation and morphogenesis,
their metabolism and structure become different
from those of other cells because of the presence of
proteins, especially enzymes, unique to that cell
type.
 Many enzymes and structural proteins are present
in a cell in an inactive form.
 It would be extremely inefficient if a cell
transcribed all its genes and synthesized all of its
possible proteins when only a few are needed.
 In many cases, gene activity is controlled by
transcription factors, proteins that bind to
promoter or enhancer regions and activate genes.
 Gene expression is also controlled by a family of
short RNA molecules called micro-RNAs.
ANALYSIS OF GENES AND
RECOMBINANT DNA
TECHNIQUES
NUCLEIC ACID HYBRIDIZATION
 The two halves of a DNA double helix can be
separated by heating them just enough to break
the hydrogen bonds between complementary
bases. This separation, which produces a solution
of single-stranded DNA molecules, is called both
DNA melting and DNA denaturation
 The reformation of double-stranded DNA by
cooling a solution of singlestranded DNAs, called
both DNA hybridization and reannealing, is
used to determine the relatedness of two types of
DNA. F
RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES
 Natural DNA is such a long molecule it cannot be
worked with easily.
 . Before the 1970s, this was impossible; both
chemical treatment and agitation cut DNA at
random, and no two experiments ever yielded the
same pieces of DNA. Then a class of bacterial
enzymes, restriction endonucleases, was
discovered.
 The sequence recognized by a restriction
endonuclease is present in both strands, running
in opposite directions; such sequences are
palindromes.
IDENTIFYING DNA FRAGMENTS
 Evolutionary Studies- After restriction
endonucleases have acted, the DNA fragments
can be identified and used. Most simply,
fragments are used directly to study the
evolution of DNA.
 Physiological Studies- In many cases, the
objective of the experiment is to locate and isolate
one particular fragment, such as the one that
contains a specific gene.
DNA CLONING
 The method of placing DNA fragments into
bacteria, as just described, is an extremely useful
technique of DNA cloning
 Placing the original plant DNA fragments into
bacteria is much easier than it may seem.
Fragments are not simply mixed with bacteria,
but are typically combined with plasmids or virus
DNA.
 A plasmid is a short, circular piece of DNA that
occurs in bacteria and acts like a tiny bacterial
chromosome.
DNA SEQUENCING
 Various methods are currently used to sequence
DNA. In the chain termination method, DNA to
be sequenced is first cloned to obtain a large
sample and is then divided into four batches.
 In the pyrosequencing method, DNA is added to a
solution with all enzymes for replication.
SEQUENCING ENTIRE GENOMES
 The sequencing described above is only effective
for fragments less than several hundred bases
long.
 To sequence a plastid or mitochondrial genome,
organelles are extracted from a cell.
 Their circles of DNA are isolated and then cloned
and divided into several batches.
 The DNA is cut into fragments, each batch being
cut with a different restriction endonuclease, and
then each fragment in each batch is sequenced.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
OF PLANTS
VIRUSES
VIRUS STRUCTURE
 Plant viruses always have a simple morphology,
either long or short rods or even round particles.
 Of the known viruses, the greatest number (400)
are retroviruses, which contain single-stranded
RNA.
 Most plant viruses have enough nucleic acid to
code for only a very small number of proteins.
VIRUS METABOLISM
 Viruses must always invade a living cell in order
to reproduce, and all known types of organisms
are attacked by viruses: plants, animals, fungi,
protozoans, algae, and prokaryotes
 Viruses that attack bacteria are called
bacteriophages or phages, but these are viruses
just like the others.
 Fungal and algal viruses are less well known
FORMATION OF NEW VIRUS PARTICLES
 Viral coat protein has a tertiary structure that
causes it to bind to viral DNA. This binding then
permits it to attract and adhere to more viral
protein, and a new protein/DNA viral particle is
quickly assembled.
 In many types of animal viruses and
bacteriophages, one of the last proteins made is
an enzyme that destroys the host cell, causing it
to burst (lyse) and release virus particles into the
environment.
ORIGIN OF VIRUS
 Many, if not most, viruses are actually portions of
genes of the host species or a species closely
related to the host. As living organisms are
damaged or die and decay, their nuclei break
down along with the rest of the cell material.
 It is possible that occasionally a fragment of a
chromosome codes for proteins that can self-
assemble into a crude coat and have some
infectious potential.
 Could viruses be reduced parasitic bacteria
instead?
PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES
 We do not try to cure entire crops of viral
disease; rather, we try to maintain healthy,
uninfected breeding stock for virus-free seeds or
cuttings.
 Heat treatment inactivates some viruses;
entire plants can be kept in hot (35°C to 40°C)
growth chambers or greenhouses for several
weeks to several months, after which they may
be free of virus.
 Even these techniques are ineffective in
most plants and against most virus diseases;
the best policy is to use virus-free plants and
protect them from infection