Studying Biology

Transcription And
Translation
The Link Between DNA and Protein
• DNA contains the molecular blueprint of

every cell
• Proteins are the “molecular workers” of the
cell
The Link Between DNA and Protein
• Proteins control cell shape, function,

reproduction, and synthesis of
biomolecules
• The information in DNA genes must
therefore be linked to the proteins that run
the cell
One Gene Encodes One Protein
• Synthesis of new molecules inside the cell

occurs through biochemical pathways
• Each step in a biochemical pathway is
catalyzed by a protein enzyme
RNA Intermediaries
• DNA in eukaryotes is kept in the nucleus

• Protein synthesis occurs at ribosomes in the
cytoplasm
RNA Intermediaries
• DNA information must be carried by an

intermediary (RNA) from nucleus to
cytoplasm
RNA Intermediaries
• RNA differs structurally from DNA
– RNA is single stranded
– RNA uses the sugar ribose
– RNA uses the nitrogenous base uracil (U)
instead of thymine (T)
RNA Intermediaries
• There are three types of RNA involved in
protein synthesis
– Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries DNA gene
information to the ribosome
– Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to
the ribosome
– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is part of the structure
of ribosomes
Transcription and Translation
• DNA directs protein synthesis in a two-step
process
1. Information in a DNA gene is copied into
mRNA in the process of transcription
2. mRNA, together with tRNA, amino acids, and
a ribosome, synthesize a protein in the
process of translation
The Genetic Code
• The base sequence in a DNA gene
dictates the sequence and type of amino
acids in translation
• Bases in mRNA are read by the ribosome
in triplets called codons
The Genetic Code
• Each codon specifies a unique amino acid
in the genetic code
• Each mRNA also has a start and a stop
codon
Overview of Transcription
• Transcription of a DNA gene into RNA has
three stages
– Initiation
– Elongation
– Termination
Initiation
Initiation phase of transcription

1. DNA molecule is unwound and strands are
separated at the beginning of the gene
sequence
2. RNA polymerase binds to promoter region
at beginning of a gene on template strand
Elongation
Elongation phase of transcription
1. RNA polymerase synthesizes a sequence of
RNA nucleotides along DNA template strand
2. Bases in newly synthesized RNA strand are
complementary to the DNA template strand
3. RNA strand peels away from DNA template
strand as DNA strands repair and wind up
Elongation
• As elongation proceeds, one end of the RNA

drifts away from the DNA; RNA polymerase
keeps the other end temporarily attached to
the DNA template strand
Termination
Termination phase of transcription
– RNA polymerase reaches a termination
sequence and releases completed RNA strand
mRNA
• An intermediate molecule is required to
convey DNA gene sequence to the
ribosome
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) performs this
function by serving as the complementary
copy of a DNA gene that is read by a
ribosome
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are large complexes of

proteins and rRNA
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits

– Small subunit has binding sites for mRNA and
a tRNA
– Large subunit has binding sites for two tRNA
molecules and catalytic site for peptide bond
formation
Transfer RNAs
• Transfer RNAs hook up to and bring amino

acids to the ribosome
• There is at least one type of tRNA
assigned to carry each of the twenty
different amino acids
Transfer RNAs
• Each tRNA has three exposed bases

called an anticodon
• The bases of the tRNA anticodon pair with
an mRNA codon within a ribosome binding
site
Translation
Ribosomes, tRNA, and mRNA cooperate
in protein synthesis, which begins with
initiation:
1. The mRNA binds to the small ribosomal
subunit
2. The mRNA slides through the subunit until the
first AUG (start codon) is exposed in the first
tRNA binding site…
Translation
3. The first tRNA carrying methionine (and
anticodon UAC) binds to the mRNA start
codon completing the initiation complex
4. The large ribosomal subunit joins the
complex
Translation
Middle phase of protein synthesis: Elongation

(continued)
1. A second tRNA binds to the second tRNA binding
site adjacent to the first tRNA
2. The anticodon of the second tRNA is
complementary to the mRNA codon exposed in
the second tRNA binding site…
Translation

3. A peptide bond forms between the methionine
and second amino acid through the action of the
ribosome catalytic site
4. The first amino acid is released from the tRNA in
the first tRNA binding site…
Translation

(continued)
5. The “empty” tRNA in the first binding site leaves
the ribosome
6. The ribosome moves down the mRNA by one
codon, transferring the tRNA holding the amino
acid chain to the first tRNA binding site…
Translation

(continued)
7. A new tRNA with anticodon complementary to the
newly exposed codon in the second tRNA
binding site approaches and the whole
elongation cycle repeats
8. Empty tRNAs are reloaded with their appropriate
amino acids by enzymes in the cytoplasm
Translation
End phase of protein synthesis: Termination

1. A stop codon on the mRNA slides into the second
tRNA binding site
2. A special protein binds to the stop codon
3. The ribosome breaks into separate subunits…
Translation
End phase of protein synthesis: Termination

4. The finished protein chain is released
5. The mRNA is released and can be used to make
another protein

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Transcription And

• DNA contains the molecular blueprint of

• Proteins control cell shape, function,

• Synthesis of new molecules inside the cell

• DNA in eukaryotes is kept in the nucleus

• DNA information must be carried by an

Initiation phase of transcription

• As elongation proceeds, one end of the RNA

• Ribosomes are large complexes of

• Ribosomes are composed of two subunits

• Transfer RNAs hook up to and bring amino

• Each tRNA has three exposed bases

Middle phase of protein synthesis: Elongation

Middle phase of protein synthesis: Elongation

Middle phase of protein synthesis: Elongation

Middle phase of protein synthesis: Elongation

End phase of protein synthesis: Termination

End phase of protein synthesis: Termination

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