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Session-2 Introduction To Sets, Types of Sets and Operations On Sets

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871 views31 pages

Session-2 Introduction To Sets, Types of Sets and Operations On Sets

Uploaded by

Nalam Ashika
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Session-2

Introduction to Sets, Types of


Sets and Operations on Sets

© 2018 KL University – The contents of this presentation are an intellectual and copyrighted property of KL University. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Summary
• Definition of sets
• Describing Sets
– Roster Method
– Set-Builder Notation
• Some Important Sets in Mathematics
• Empty Set and Universal Set
• Subsets and Set Equality
• Cardinality of Sets
• Tuples
• Cartesian Product
Introduction
• Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types
of objects considered in discrete mathematics.
– Important for counting.
– Programming languages have set operations.
• Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
– Many different systems of axioms have been used to
develop set theory.
– Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms for
set theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve set
theory.
Sets
• A set is an unordered collection of objects.
– the students in this class
– the chairs in this room
• The objects in a set are called the elements, or
members of the set. A set is said to contain its
elements.
• The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an
element of the set A.
• If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A
Describing a Set: Roster Method
• S = {a,b,c,d}
• Order not important
S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
• Each distinct object is either a member or not;
listing more than once does not change the set.
S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
• Elipses (…) may be used to describe a set
without listing all of the members when the
pattern is clear.
S = {a,b,c,d, ……,z }
Roster Method
• Set of all vowels in the English alphabet:
V = {a,e,i,o,u}
• Set of all odd positive integers less than 10:
O = {1,3,5,7,9}
• Set of all positive integers less than 100:
S = {1,2,3,……..,99}
• Set of all integers less than 0:
S = {…., -3,-2,-1}
Some Important Sets
N = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3….}
Z = integers = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…}
Z⁺ = positive integers = {1,2,3,…..}
R = set of real numbers
R+ = set of positive real numbers
C = set of complex numbers.
Q = set of rational numbers
Set-Builder Notation
• Specify the property or properties that all members
must satisfy:
S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
• A predicate may be used:
S = {x | P(x)}
• Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
• Positive rational numbers:
Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers
p,q}
Interval Notation

[a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a,b) = {x | a ≤ x < b}
(a,b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}
(a,b) = {x | a < x < b}

closed interval [a,b]


open interval (a,b)
Exercise
Possible Solutions
• {1,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31}
• {-4,3}
• {S, U, B, E, T}
Universal Set and Empty Set
• The universal set U is the set containing
everything currently under consideration.
– Sometimes implicit Venn Diagram
– Sometimes explicitly stated.
– Contents depend on the context. U

• The empty set is the set with no V aoeui


elements. Symbolized ∅, but
{} also used. John Venn (1834-1923)
Cambridge, UK
Russell’s Paradox
• Let S be the set of all sets which are not
members of themselves. A paradox results
from trying to answer the question “Is S a
member of itself?”
• Related Paradox:
– Henry is a barber who shaves all people who do
not shave themselves. A paradox results from
trying to answer the question Bertrand
“DoesRussell
Henry shave
(1872-1970)
Cambridge, UK
himself?” Nobel Prize Winner
Some things to remember
• Sets can be elements of sets.
{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
• The empty set is different from a set
containing the empty set.
∅ ≠{∅}
Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they
have the same elements.
– Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if
and only if
.
– We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.

{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}
Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and
only if every element of A is also an element
of B.
– The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a
subset of the set B.
– A ⊆ B holds if and only if
is true.
1. Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S ,for every set S.
2. Because a ∈ S → a ∈ S, S ⊆ S, for every set S.
Showing a Set is or is not a Subset of
Another Set
• Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A ⊆ B,
show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
• Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A is
not a subset of B, A ⊈ B, find an element x ∈ A with x
∉ B. (Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that
x ∈ A implies x ∈ B.)
Examples:
1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is
a subset of all students at your school.
2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a
subset of the set of nonnegative integers.
Another look at Equality of Sets
• Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted
by A = B, iff

• Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff

• This is equivalent to
A⊆B and B⊆A
Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠B, then we say A is
a proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂
B, then

is true. U
B
A

Venn Diagram
Power Sets
Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A,
denoted P(A), is called the power set of A.
Example: If A = {a,b} then
P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}

• If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of


the power set is 2ⁿ. (In Chapters 5 and 6, we
will discuss different ways to show this.)
Tuples
• The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,…..,an) is the
ordered collection that has a1 as its first
element and a2 as its second element and so
on until an as its last element.
• Two n-tuples are equal if and only if their
corresponding elements are equal.
• 2-tuples are called ordered pairs.
• The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if
and only if a = c and b = d.
Set Operations
• Set Operations
– Union
– Intersection
– Complementation
– Difference
• More on Set Cardinality
• Set Identities
• Proving Identities
• Membership Tables
Union
• Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of the
sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set:

• Example: What is {1,2,3} ∪ {3, 4, 5}?


Venn Diagram for A ∪ B
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5} U
A B
Intersection
• Definition: The intersection of sets A and B,
denoted by A ∩ B, is

• Note if the intersection is empty, then A and B are


said to be disjoint.
• Example: What is? {1,2,3} ∩ {3,4,5} ?
Solution: {3} Venn Diagram for A ∩B
• Example:What is? U
{1,2,3} ∩ {4,5,6} ? A B
Solution: ∅
Complement
Definition: If A is a set, then the complement
of the A (with respect to U), denoted by Ā is
the set U - A
Ā = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}
(The complement of A is sometimes denoted
by Ac .)
Example: If U is the positive integers less than
100, what is the complement of {x | x > 70}
Ā
Solution: {x | x ≤ 70}
Difference
• Definition: Let A and B be sets. The difference
of A and B, denoted by A – B, is the set
containing the elements of A that are not in B.
The difference of A and B is also called the
complement of B with respect to A.
A – B = {x | x ∈ A  x ∉ B} = A ∩B
U Venn Diagram for A − B
A
B
Review Questions
Example: U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B ={4,5,6,7,8}
1. A ∪ B
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
2. A ∩ B
Solution: {4,5}
3. Ā
Solution: {0,6,7,8,9,10}
4.
Solution: {0,1,2,3,9,10}
5. A – B
Solution: {1,2,3}
6. B – A
Solution: {6,7,8}
Symmetric Difference (optional)
Definition: The symmetric difference of A and B,
denoted by is the set

Example:
U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
U
A = {1,2,3,4,5} B ={4,5,6,7,8}
A B
What is :
– Solution: {1,2,3,6,7,8}
Venn Diagram
Set Identities
• Identity laws

• Domination laws

• Idempotent laws

• Complementation law

Continued on next slide 


Set Identities
• Commutative laws

• Associative laws

• Distributive laws

Continued on next slide 


Set Identities
• De Morgan’s laws

• Absorption laws

• Complement laws

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